Table 1
Overall prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths. (N = 310).
| No. Infected (%) | Egg count (epg) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| STH | 106 (34.2) | Intensity (Mean ± SD) | Min.–Max. |
| Ascaris lumbricoides | 52 (16.8) | 216.92 ± 129.81 | 48–600 |
| Hookworm | 56 (18.1) | 373.71 ± 318.10 | 48–2232 |
| Trichuris trichiura | 16 (5.2) | 156.00 ± 143.73 | 48–576 |
[i] N = number examined. Epg = egg per gram. SD = standard deviation.
Figure 1
Prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths by age groups.
Figure 2
Intensity of soil transmitted helminths in agrarian communities of Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Area, Kogi State.
Table 2
Overall demographics of questionnaire respondents of agrarian communities in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Areas, Kogi State (n = 295).
| Characteristics | Frequency (%) |
|---|---|
| LGA | |
| Ibaji | 154 (52.2) |
| Igalamela-Odolu | 141 (47.8) |
| Community | |
| Onyedega | 19 (6.4) |
| Ejule | 15 (5.1) |
| Inyano | 15 (5.1) |
| Aneke | 15 (5.1) |
| Ichalla-Ajode | 72 (24.4) |
| Otiaka | 18 (6.1) |
| Ogbagba | 14 (4.7) |
| Okpachala | 28 (9.5) |
| Ofuloko | 18 (6.1) |
| Ogbogbo | 53 (18.0) |
| Aikpele | 28 (9.5) |
| Sex | |
| Male | 153 (51.9) |
| Female | 142 (48.1) |
| Age (year) | |
| 0–4 | 55 (18.6) |
| 5–18 | 107 (36.3) |
| 19–45 | 89 (30.2) |
| >45 | 44 (14.9) |
| Marital Status | |
| Single | 173 (58.6) |
| Married | 122 (41.4) |
| Occupation | |
| Pre-school | 63 (21.4) |
| Student | 114 (38.6) |
| Farming | 109 (36.9) |
| Fishing | 1 (0.3) |
| Civil Servant | 6 (2.0) |
| Others | 2 (0.7) |
[i] n = number of respondents.
Table 3
Socio-economic status of questionnaire respondents of agrarian communities in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Areas, Kogi State (n = 295).
| Characteristics | Frequency (%) |
|---|---|
| House floor type | |
| Mud | 149 (50.5) |
| Cement | 138 (46.8) |
| Tiles | 8 (2.7) |
| Electricity and Appliances | |
| Electricity | 123 (41.7) |
| Radio | 170 (57.6) |
| Television | 78 (26.4) |
| Refrigerator | 21 (7.1) |
| Source of Water | |
| Tap | 153 (51.9) |
| River | 135 (45.8) |
| Well | 15 (5.1) |
| Rain | 11 (3.7) |
| Toilet facility possession | 128 (43.4) |
| Types of Toilet | |
| Pit | 84 (28.5) |
| Water closet | 32 (10.8) |
| Bucket | 6 (2.0) |
| Others | 6 (2.0) |
| Wipe Used after Toilet | |
| Toilet paper | 28 (9.5) |
| Water | 172 (58.3) |
| Plant leaf | 95 (32.2) |
[i] n = number examined.
Table 4
Knowledge, perception, attitude and practice of questionnaire respondents in agrarian communities of Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Area, Kogi State (n = 295).
| Characteristics | Frequency (%) |
|---|---|
| Knowledge and Perception | |
| Know parasitic worm | 115 (39.0) |
| Think could get worms | 144 (48.8) |
| Know how to get worms | 26 (8.8) |
| Ever had worm infection | 109 (36.9) |
| Attitude and Practices | |
| Try to prevent worm infection | 49 (16.6) |
| Hygiene | |
| Defecate in open | 175 (59.3) |
| Wipe after toilet | |
| Toilet paper | 28 (9.5) |
| Water | 172 (58.3) |
| Leaf | 95 (32.2) |
| Wash hand after toilet | 261 (88.5) |
| Wash hand with soap | 169 (57.3) |
| Eat meal with bare hands (without cutleries) | 191 (64.7) |
| Home/farm activities | |
| Eat in the farm | 265 (86.8) |
| Wear shoe to farm | 272 (92.2) |
| Wear shoe while working in farm | 170 (57.6) |
| Wear shoe at home | 219 (74.2) |
| Child/ward play in sand | 276 (93.6) |
| Have animal(s) at home | 209 (70.8) |
| Types* | |
| Dog | 19 (6.4) |
| Pig | 6 (2.0) |
| Goat | 146 (49.5) |
| Chicken | 162 (54.9) |
| Cow | 5 (1.7) |
| Others | 2 (0.7) |
| Use of health services | |
| *have medical centre near home | 262 (88.8) |
| *been sick one or more times in past year | 242 (82.0) |
| Visited the doctor one or more times in the past year | 184 (62.4) |
| *have received medicine for worm | 93 (31.5) |
| *When received medicine for worm? | |
| None | 203 (68.8) |
| Months ago | 40 (13.6) |
| Years ago | 53 (18.0) |
[i] * Included in the section for convenience. n = number examined.
Table 5
Wealth quintiles and relative possession of assets among agrarian communities in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Areas, Kogi State.
| Descriptors | Wealth Quintiles (%) | Total | P** | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 (Poorest) | Q2 (Poor) | Q3 (Average) | Q4 (Rich) | Q5 (Richest) | |||
| Total | 68 (23.1) | 52 (17.6) | 58 (19.7) | 44 (14.9) | 73 (24.7) | 295 | |
| Floor type | |||||||
| Mud | 68 (45.6) | 49 (32.9) | 30 (20.1) | 2 (1.3) | 0 (0.0) | 149 | <0.0001 |
| Cement | 0 (0.0) | 3 (2.1) | 28 (19.2) | 42 (28.8) | 73 (50.0) | 146 | <0.0001 |
| Electricity & Appliances | |||||||
| Electricity | 2 (1.6) | 13 (10.6) | 17 (13.8) | 28 (22.8) | 63 (51.2) | 123 | <0.0001 |
| Radio | 9 (5.3) | 28 (16.5) | 34 (20.0) | 29 (17.1) | 70 (41.2) | 170 | <0.0001 |
| Television | 10 (12.8) | 6 (7.7) | 14 (17.9) | 17 (21.8) | 31 (39.7) | 78 | <0.0001 |
| Refrigerators | 1 (4.8) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (19.0) | 6 (28.6) | 10 (47.6) | 21 | 0.005 |
| Source of water | |||||||
| Pipe-borne | 3 (2.0) | 16 (10.5) | 37 (24.2) | 27 (17.6) | 70 (45.8) | 153 | <0.0001 |
| River | 67 (49.6) | 35 (25.9) | 18 (13.3) | 15 (11.1) | 0 (0.0) | 135 | <0.0001 |
| Well | 1 (6.7) | 3 (20.0) | 3 (20.0) | 6 (40.0) | 2 (13.3) | 15 | 0.052 |
| Rain | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 7 (63.6) | 4 (36.4) | 11 | <0.0001 |
| Have toilet | 2 (1.6) | 10 (7.8) | 24 (18.8) | 28 (21.9) | 64 (50.0) | 128 | <0.0001 |
| Toilet types | |||||||
| Pit | 0 (0.0) | 5 (6.0) | 12 (14.3) | 17 (20.2) | 50 (59.5) | 84 | <0.0001 |
| Water closet | 1 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (31.2) | 7 (21.9) | 14 (43.8) | 32 | <0.0001 |
| Bucket | 0 (0.0) | 1 (16.7) | 1 (16.7) | 4 (66.7) | 0 (0.0) | 6 | 0.007 |
| Others* | 1 (16.7) | 3 (50.0) | 2 (33.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 6 | 0.149 |
| Wipes | |||||||
| Toilet paper | 9 (32.1) | 4 (14.3) | 3 (10.7) | 1 (3.6) | 11 (39.3) | 28 | 0.096 |
| Water | 23 (13.4) | 28 (16.3) | 40 (23.3) | 27 (15.7) | 54 (31.4) | 172 | <0.0001 |
| Plant leaf | 36 (40.0) | 20 (22.2) | 14 (15.6) | 14 (15.6) | 6 (6.7) | 90 | <0.0001 |
| Possess animals | |||||||
| Chicken | 30 (18.5) | 27 (16.7) | 32 (19.8) | 26 (16.0) | 47 (29.0) | 162 | 0.175 |
| Goat | 38 (26.0) | 16 (11.0) | 37 (25.3) | 25 (17.1) | 30 (20.5) | 146 | 0.003 |
| Defecate in open† | 61 (34.9) | 44 (25.1) | 38 (21.7) | 21 (12.0) | 11 (6.3) | 175 | <0.0001 |
[i] Q1 to Q5 are first to fifth socio-economic status quintiles; values are presented as number of respondent possessing the asset (%). * other unspecified toilet types. † Open defecation was not included as asset in the PCA but was include here for ease of presentation. ** p-value from chi-square comparison of possession of asset between quintiles.
Figure 3
Distribution of wealth among individuals in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Areas.
Table 6
Risk of soil-transmitted helminths infection associated with socio-economic status (SES), knowledge, perception, attitude and practices among agrarian communities in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Area, Kogi State (n = 295).
| Determinants | PR (95% CI) | p |
|---|---|---|
| SES | ||
| Q1 (Poorest) | 1 | |
| Q2 (Poor) | 0.9938 (0.6182–1.5979) | 0.97967 |
| Q3 (Average) | 1.2193 (0.7990–1.8608) | 0.35789 |
| Q4 (Rich) | 1.1127 (0.6937–1.7849) | 0.65773 |
| Q5 (Richest) | 0.4843 (0.2704–0.8678) | 0.01483 |
| Knowledge and Perception | ||
| Know parasitic worms | 0.7943 (0.5654–1.1159) | 0.18425 |
| Think could get worms | 0.8095 (0.5876–1.1150) | 0.19580 |
| Know how to get worms | 0.7705 (0.4006–1.4817) | 0.43446 |
| Ever had worm infection | 0.9451 (0.6784–1.3166) | 0.73850 |
| Attitude and Practices | ||
| Try to prevent worm infection | 1.0160 (0.6666–1.5487) | 0.94104 |
| Hygiene | ||
| Defecate in open | 1.7878 (1.2366–2.5846) | 0.00201 |
| *Toilet types | ||
| No toilet | 1 | |
| Pit | 0.4694 (0.2967–0.7428) | 0.00123 |
| Water closet | 0.5074 (0.2577–0.9991) | 0.04968 |
| Bucket | 0.7731 (0.2460–2.4294) | 0.65962 |
| Others** | 1.1597 (0.5113–2.6303) | 0.72285 |
| Wash hand after toilet | 0.6437 (0.4404–0.9407) | 0.02288 |
| Wash hand with soap | 0.9278 (0.6755–1.2744) | 0.64360 |
| Eat meal with bare hands (without cutleries) | 1.2295 (0.8674–1.7429) | 0.24578 |
| Home/farm activities | ||
| Eat in the farm | 1.1299 (0.6855–1.8625) | 0.63202 |
| Wear shoe to farm | 1.6235 (0.7354–3.5843) | 0.23039 |
| Wear shoe while working in farm | 0.7209 (0.5264–0.9872) | 0.04130 |
| Wear shoe at home | 0.9048 (0.6383–1.2825) | 0.57396 |
| Use of health services | ||
| Have medical centre near home* | 0.9342 (0.5769–1.5125) | 0.78177 |
| Been sick one or more times in past year* | 1.0822 (0.7052–1.6606) | 0.71780 |
| Visited the doctor one or more times in the past year | 0.8474 (0.6166–1.1646) | 0.30751 |
| Have received medicine for worm* | 0.8331 (0.5813–1.1940) | 0.32000 |
| When received medicine for worm?* | ||
| None | 1 | |
| Months ago | 0.7544 (0.4418–1.2880) | 0.30178 |
| Years ago | 0.8441 (0.5402–1.3189) | 0.45664 |
[i] N = number examined. PR = prevalence ratio; CI = confidence interval. * Included in the section for ease of result presentation. ** other toilet types apart from the ones listed. Except SES, types of toilet and “when medicine was received for worm” which has 1 indicated as reference, the reference value for all other determinants is 1 and represent the group that responded “no” to each of the questions concerned.