Figure 1
Ocean Pollution – A Complex Mixture.
Figure 2
Areas considered suitable for Vibrio cholerae [50].
Source: Escobar et al., (2015) (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.05.028) CC BY 4.0.
Figure 3
Total global mercury releases and relevant historical factors, 1510–2010.
Source: Street et al., (2019) (https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab281f) CC BY 3.0.
Figure 4
Geographic differences in methylmercury concentrations of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares).
Source: Reprinted from Nicklish et al., Mercury levels of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) are associated with capture location. Environmental Pollution 2017: 87–93, doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.070 with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 5
Cumulative Plastic Production since 1960. Calculated as the sum of annual global polymer resin, synthetic fiber, and plastic additive production. Most of this plastic still exists.
Source: Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution), CC BY 4.0).
Figure 6
Global Chemical Production and Capacity Index (%) 1987–2020.
Source: The pH Report, American Chemistry Council.
Figure 7
Impact of geographic variation on risk-based fish consumption advisories. Ranges of risk-based consumption limits for 11 sites, calculated in meals per month and based on multiple contaminant exposure with cancerogenic health endpoints, including total PCBs (n = 209), toxaphene and dieldrin. The red hollow spheres to the left of each box plot display the individual fish values. Letters in parenthesis represent subgroups of the sample population with means that were significantly different from each other using Tukey’s post hoc analysis. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and American Heart Association (AHA) recommended minimum monthly fish consumption levels and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) threshold for unrestricted (>16) fish meals per month are shown as dashed lines. Note: GOM, Gulf of Mexico, IO, Indian Ocean; NCS, North China Sea; NEAO, Northeast Atlantic Ocean; NEPO, Northeast Pacific Ocean; NPO, Northern Pacific Ocean; NWAO, Northwest Atlantic Ocean; NWPO, Northwest Pacific Ocean; SCS, South China Sea; SEPO, Southeast Pacific Ocean; SWPO, Southwest Pacific Ocean.
Source: Nicklisch et al. (2017), https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP518.
Table 1
Major Oil Spills [299].
| Spill | Year | Description |
|---|---|---|
| VLCC Metula Oil Spill, Chile | 1974 | A very large crude carrier hit a shoal in the Straits of Magellan and released nearly 200,000 tons of light Arabian crude oil. |
| Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill, France | 1978 | A very large crude carrier clipped shallow rocks off the coast of Brittany. The resulting oil slick polluted 200 miles of the French coast and significantly harmed wildlife (mollusks, crustaceans, birds). |
| Atlantic Empress Oil Spill, Trinidad | 1979 | Occurred 10 miles off the coast of Trinidad and Tobago. An estimated 90 million gallons of oil were released into the Atlantic Ocean. |
| Ixtoc Oil Spill, Mexico | 1979 | Spill occurred as a result of an explosion. 140 million gallons of oil were released into the Gulf of Mexico. |
| Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Alaska, USA | 1989 | Released 37,000 metric tons of crude oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA. Considered the worst oil spill worldwide in terms of environmental damage. |
| Persian Gulf War Oil Spill | 1991 | Between 252 and 336 million gallons of oil were released into the Persian Gulf during the Gulf War. |
| Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Texas, USA | 2010 | 134 million gallons of crude oil were released into the Gulf of Mexico following an explosion and fire on a drilling platform. |
| Guarello Island, Patagonia, Chile | 2019 | 40,000 liters of diesel fuel released into the Straits of Magellan from a mining operation. |
Figure 8
Major Oil Spills, 1967–2010. From: World Ocean Review 3, maribus gGmbH, Hamburg 2015.
Source: Bücker et al. 2014 [314]. See also ITOPF 2019 [315].
Figure 9
Frequency of Bottom-Water Hypoxia (‘Dead Zones’), Gulf of Mexico, 1985–2014.
Source: Rabalais et al., 2019, CC BY 4.0 [327].
Figure 10
Geographical Distribution of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Events, 1970 and 2017.
Source: US National Office for HABs, Woods Hole, MA.
Figure 11
Trends in conditions favorable to Vibrio outbreaks in selected world regions [411].
Source: Reprinted from Watts et al. The 2018 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: shaping the health of nations for centuries to come. Lancet 392: 2479–2514, 2018, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 12
Sea surface temperature and relative risk of clinically notified cases of Vibrio infection, Sweden, 2006–2014 [416].
Source: Semenza et al. (2017), https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2198.
Figure 13
Seasonal abundance of Vibrio species, Neuse River Estuary, NC, USA, 2003–2017. (Autoregressive integrated moving average of mean monthly abundance at a mid-water station). Dots are actual measurements. Red line represents model abundance. Blue lines are 95% confidence intervals.
Source: Froelich et al. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215254, Creative Commons, license CC BY 4.0.
Table 2
Optimal Temperature and Salinity Fecal-Oral Pathogens in Sea-Water [445].
| Pathogen | Related Diseases | Salinity (ppt) | Temp (°C) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vibrio spp | Vibriosis | 5–25 | 15–30 | Vibrio species naturally thrive in warm waters with moderate salinity |
| Campylobacter jejuni | Campylobacteriosis | 0–0.5 | 30–45 | |
| Shigella | Shigellosis | 0–20 | 4–37 | Frequent outbreaks in US |
| E coli O157:H7 | Bloody diarrhea | 0–34 | 4–37 | Frequent outbreaks in US |
| Legionella sp | Legionnaire’s Disease | 0–0.5 | 25–47 | High incidence in US Typically found in freshwater, but can also survive in marine environments |
Source: CF MacKay, Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban, South Africa.
Figure 14
Global changes in maximum fish catch potential.
Source: IPCC.
Table 3
European Ocean Monitoring Programs.
|
Table 4
United States Ocean Monitoring Programs.
|
Figure 15
Concentrations of PCBs in archived herring gull eggs from three locations on the North German coast, 1988–2008 [208]
Source: Fleidner et al. (2012), https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-4715-24-7, Creative Commons, license CC BY 2.0.