Table 1
Socio-demographic characteristics of internal migrants and non-migrants in the Mandalay District.
| VARIABLE | TOTAL (N = 937) NO. (%) | NON-MIGRANTS (N = 717) NO. (%) | MIGRANTS (N = 220) NO. (%) | P |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Urban – Chanayethazan | 416 (44.4) | 288 (40.2) | 128 (58.2%) | <0.001 |
| Average age | 42.8 ± 14.1 | 43.2 ± 14.2 | 41.5 ± 13.7 | 0.113 |
| Female | 715 (77.0) | 549 (77.1) | 166 (76.9) | 0.938 |
| Self-reported health | ||||
| Poor/Fair (ref: good/excellent) | 327 (35.8) | 244 (35.1) | 83 (38.1) | 0.418 |
| Participant’s educationa | 0.106 | |||
| None and non-standard curriculum | 66 (7.1) | 46 (6.5) | 20 (9.1) | – |
| Primary school | 307 (33.0) | 242 (34.0) | 65 (29.5) | – |
| Secondary school | 253 (27.2) | 199 (28.0) | 54 (24.5) | – |
| High school | 165 (17.7) | 115 (16.2) | 50 (22.7) | – |
| University | 140 (15.0) | 109 (15.3) | 31 (14.1) | – |
| Household highest educationa | 0.174 | |||
| None and non-standard curriculum | 29 (3.1) | 18 (2.5) | 11 (5.0) | – |
| Primary school | 115 (12.4) | 89 (12.6) | 26 (11.9) | – |
| Secondary school | 193 (20.8) | 142 (20.1) | 51 (23.3) | – |
| High school | 277 (29.9) | 209 (29.6) | 68 (31.1) | – |
| University | 312 (33.7) | 249 (35.2) | 63 (28.8) | – |
| Household in extreme povertyb | 263 (35.6) | 205 (34.9) | 58 (38.2) | 0.458 |
| Lives in temporary hut/bamboo house (ref: all other housing types) | 215 (23.2) | 146 (20.7) | 69 (31.5) | 0.001 |
[i] a p value shown for categorical variable not individual dummy variables. b Equal or less than 1.25 USD/person/day.
Table 2
Occupational health of internal migrants and non-migrants.
| ILLNESS/INJURY | OCCUPATION | NON-MIGRANT | MIGRANT | OCCUPATION | NON-MIGRANT | MIGRANT |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Construction/Factory (n = 60) | 53 (7.9) | 7 (3.4)* | Own Business (n = 196) | 154 (22.8) | 42 (20.3) | |
| Injury (any) | 5 (9.6) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (7.3) | 2 (5.7) | ||
| Cuts | 4 (7.7) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (3.6) | 2 (5.7) | ||
| Illness (any) | 6 (11.8) | 2 (28.6) | 12 (9.0) | 14 (38.9)*** | ||
| Heatstroke | 4 (8.0) | 1 (14.3) | 11 (8.2) | 9 (25.7)** | ||
| Vomiting | 1 (2.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.3)** | ||
| Diarrhea | 1 (2.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (6.9)* | ||
| Coughing | 1 (2.1) | 1 (16.7) | 3 (2.3) | 9 (27.3)*** | ||
| Driver (n = 23) | 11 (1.6) | 12 (5.8)*** | Street Vendor (n = 68) | 40 (5.9) | 28 (29.0)*** | |
| Injury (any) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (27.3) | 1 (3.2) | 10 (47.6)*** | ||
| Cuts | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (3.2) | 10 (47.6)*** | ||
| Illness (any) | 2 (50.0) | 3 (42.9) | 5 (17.2) | 13 (50.0)* | ||
| Heatstroke | 2 (50.0) | 3 (42.9) | 2 (6.9) | 12 (46.2)*** | ||
| Vomiting | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Diarrhea | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Coughing | 2 (50.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (10.7) | 9 (45.0)* | ||
| Farmer (n = 53) | 49 (7.3) | 4 (1.9)** | Housewife (n = 229) | 169 (29.0) | 60 (29.0) | |
| Injury (any) | 1 (3.8) | 1 (25.0) | 2 (9.5) | 5 (26.3) | ||
| Cuts | 1 (4.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (9.5) | 4 (21.1) | ||
| Illness (any) | 4 (14.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (17.6) | 4 (23.5) | ||
| Heatstroke | 4 (14.8) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (17.6) | 2 (11.8) | ||
| Vomiting | 1 (3.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (5.9) | ||
| Diarrhea | 1 (3.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Coughing | 4 (14.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Government (n = 42) | 37 (5.5) | 5 (2.4) | Other (n = 211) | 162 (24.0) | 49 (23.7) | |
| Injury (any) | 2 (6.7) | 2 (40.0) | 18 (17.3) | 9 (24.3) | ||
| Cuts | 2 (6.7) | 2 (40.0) | 9 (9.1) | 2 (5.6) | ||
| Illness (any) | 8 (26.7) | 2 (40.0) | 23 (23.0) | 12 (30.8) | ||
| Heatstroke | 8 (26.7) | 2 (40.0) | 13 (13.1) | 8 (21.6) | ||
| Vomiting | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (4.3) | 4 (11.4) | ||
| Diarrhea | 3 (10.7) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (3.2) | 5 (14.3)* | ||
| Coughing | 3 (10.7) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (14.9) | 6 (17.6) | ||
| Overall (n = 882) | 675 (76.5) | 207 (23.5)*** | ||||
| Injury (any) | 40 (9.6) | 32 (22.5)*** | ||||
| Cuts | 24 (5.8) | 20 (14.7)*** | ||||
| Illness (any) | 67 (16.5) | 50 (35.0)*** | ||||
| Heatstroke | 48 (11.9) | 37 (26.4)*** | ||||
| Vomiting | 6 (1.6) | 8 (7.0)** | ||||
| Diarrhea | 8 (2.1) | 7 (6.1)* | ||||
| Coughing | 33 (8.6) | 25 (20.3)*** | ||||
[i] Statistical significance based on chi-square and Fisher’s Exact tests between migrants and non-migrants.
*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05 95% CI in parentheses.
Table 3
WASH Access and behavior.
| VARIABLE | TOTAL (N = 937) NO. (%) | NON-MIGRANTS(N = 717) NO. (%) | MIGRANTS (N = 220) NO. (%) | P |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lives in urban area | 416 (44.4) | 288 (40.2) | 128 (58.2) | <0.001 |
| Lives in temporary hut or bamboo house | 215 (23.2) | 146 (20.7) | 69 (31.5) | 0.001 |
| Improved source of drinking water | 796 (86.2) | 636 (89.8) | 160 (74.4) | <0.001 |
| Improved source of household water | 800 (86.8) | 627 (88.6) | 173 (80.8) | 0.004 |
| Improved sanitation facility | 842 (91.5) | 657 (93.1) | 185 (86.4) | 0.002 |
| Always wash hands with soapc | 342 (38.2) | 272 (39.8) | 70 (33.2) | 0.085 |
| After using toilet | 807 (90.8) | 629 (92.5) | 178 (85.2) | 0.001 |
| Before hand or breastfeeding children | 381 (76.8) | 301 (80.3) | 80 (66.1) | 0.001 |
| Before cooking or preparing food | 622 (87.1%) | 500 (89.1) | 122 (79.7) | 0.002 |
[i] Statistical significance based on chi-square tests between migrants and non-migrants.
c Handwashing: Each outcome variable is measured as 1 = always 0 = not always. “Always” variable is before/after each of 5 activities (toileting, cleaning child’s bottom, feeding, eating and cooking).
Table 4
Multivariable analysis of WASH access.
| VARIABLE | IMPROVED SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER | IMPROVED SOURCE OF HOUSEHOLD WATER | IMPROVED SANITATION FACILITY |
|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Migrant | 3.49*** | 1.90* | 1.98* |
| (2.17–5.61) | (1.15–3.14) | (1.10- 3.58) | |
| Lives in a rural area | 1.58 | 2.42*** | 1.19 |
| (0.981–2.55) | (1.47–3.97) | (0.641–2.19) | |
| Lives in permanent housing | 1.94* | 3.48*** | 4.19*** |
| (1.15–3.25) | (2.07–5.85) | (2.39–7.37) | |
| Compulsory Edu (HH) | 1.06 | 1.14 | 3.30*** |
| (0.588–1.92) | (0.625–2.09) | (1.85–5.89) | |
| Household above poverty line | 1.78* | 1.11 | 0.935 |
| (1.12–2.82) | (0.686–1.78) | (0.528–1.66) | |
| Observations | 713 | 716 | 717 |
[i] Logistic regression (Odds Ratios). 95% Confidence Intervals in parentheses. Compulsory education or greater is at least 9 years for one household member. Poverty = $1.25 per person per day.
*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
Table 5
Multivariable analysis of handwashing behavior: Wash hands with soap and water.
| VARIABLE | ALWAYS – 5 ACTIVITIES | AFTER USING THE TOILET | BEFORE HAND OR BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN | BEFORE COOKING |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Migrant | 1.81** | 2.80*** | 2.84*** | 2.08** |
| (1.19–2.74) | (1.66–4.72) | (1.68–4.79) | (1.20–3.60) | |
| Age | 0.984* | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.06*** |
| (0.972–0.998) | (0.993–1.03) | (0.997–1.04) | (1.04–1.09) | |
| Female | 2.10** | 1.11 | 1.36 | 0.595 |
| (1.36–3.25) | (0.593–2.08) | (0.701–2.63) | (0.255–1.39) | |
| Lives in rural area | 1.04 | 1.09 | 0.899 | 1.06 |
| (0.737–1.48) | (0.637–1.87) | (0.530–1.52) | (0.614–1.85) | |
| Median income + | 0.809 | 1.33 | 1.01 | 0.699 |
| (0.587–1.12) | (0.804–2.187) | (0.631–1.63) | (0.424–1.153) | |
| Compulsory Edu (Ind) | 1.21 | 1.96* | 0.817 | 1.53 |
| (0.855–1.71) | (1.16–3.33) | (0.480–1.39) | (0.882–2.66) | |
| Observations | 699 | 694 | 382 | 562 |
[i] Logistic regression (Odds Ratios). *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05 95% CI in parentheses. All variables except age (continuous) are dichotomous. Median income = $200 USD per month. Compulsory education or greater is at least 9 years for the individual respondent. Each outcome variable is measured as 1 = always 0 = not always. “Always” variable is before/after each of 5 activities (toileting, cleaning child’s bottom, feeding, eating and cooking).