Figure 1
Numerous hazards and compromised control measures in ASGM: Interaction between hazards, PPE use and health, safety and environmental effects in ASGM in Zimbabwe.
| A | 75%–100% | immediate attention needed |
| B | 60%–74% | attention required in 1 week |
| C | 45%–59% | attention required in 1 month |
| D | 30%–44% | attention needed in 6 months |
| E | 15%–29% | attention required in 12 months |
| F | 1%–14% | attention required as soon as possible [24] |
[i] Risk profiling determined the urgency of response measures.
Table 1
Socio-demographics: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Miners from Kadoma and Shurugwi in Zimbabwe in 2020 (n = 401).
| CHARACTERISTICS | N (%) | TOTAL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Population per district | 401 (100) | 401 | |
| District n (%) | Kadoma | 220 (54.9) | |
| Mine category (n (%) | Shurugwi | 181 (45.1) | 401 |
| Rudimentary | 78 (19.5) | ||
| Gender n (%) | More mechanized | 323 (80.5) | 401 |
| Female | 69 (17.2) | ||
| Marital status n (%) | Male | 332 (82.8) | 401 |
| Single | 126 (31.9) | ||
| Age (n (%) | Married | 202 (51.1) | |
| Separated | 17 (4.3) | ||
| Divorced | 28 (7.1) | ||
| Widowed | 22 (5.6) | 395 | |
| 18–35 years | 212 (56.1) | ||
| Education level n (%) | 36–50 years | 130 (34.4) | |
| Above 50 years | 36 (9.5) | 378 | |
| No formal school | 28 (7.1) | ||
| Monthly Earnings n (%) | Primary | 59 (14.9) | |
| Secondary | 241 (60.9) | ||
| Tertiary | 39 (9.8) | ||
| Vocational | 29 (7.3) | 396 | |
| No Earnings | 7 (1.9) | ||
| Roles n (% of cases) | Less than 100 US$ | 212 (56.7) | |
| Above 100–500 US$ | 13 (34.8) | ||
| Above 500–1 000 US$ | 24 (6.4) | ||
| Above 1000 US$ | 1 (0.3) | 374 | |
| Digging | 211 (65.3) | ||
| Daily working hours n (%) | Moving ore manually | 59 (18.3) | |
| Blasting | 51 (15.8) | ||
| Loading | 44 (13.6) | ||
| Washing/panning | 33 (10) | ||
| Cooking | 26 (7.9) | ||
| Amalgam burning | 24 (7.3) | ||
| Milling | 24 (7.3) | ||
| Sponsoring | 22 (6.8) | ||
| Supervision | 22 (6.8) | ||
| Mine owner | 19 (5.9) | ||
| Gold buying | 14 (4.3) | 549 (Total cases) | |
| 1–8 hours | 259 (66.9) | ||
| Working underground n (%) | Above 8–16 hours | 82 (21.2) | |
| Above 16–24 hours | 46 (11.9) | 387 | |
| Working underground yes | 201(52.3) | 385 | |
| Working arrangements n (%) | Shares | 229 (61.2) | |
| Salary | 89 (23.8) | ||
| Contract | 35 (9.4) | ||
| Individual | 21 (5.6) | 374 | |
Table 2
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) and personal protective equipment (PPE) use: SOPs and PPE use reported by miners in Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe, in 2020.
| STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AND PPE USE | N (%) | TOTAL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Standard Operating Procedures n (%) | 92 (25.6) | 360 | |
| Use of PPE n (%) | 231 (59.8) | 386 | |
| Replacement of PPE n (%) | Frequently | 37 (34.9) | |
| Means of getting PPE n (%) | Rarely | 49 (46.2) | |
| Never | 20 (18.9) | 295 | |
| Provided at work | 104 (46.4) | ||
| Reasons for non-PPE use n (% of cases) | Bought for self | 104 (46.4) | |
| Co-worker | 13 (5.8) | ||
| Friend or family | 11 (4.9) | ||
| Not Provided | 68 (29.7) | 106 | |
| I don’t know | 68 (29.7) | ||
| Lack of awareness | 39 (17) | ||
| Not affordable | 35 (15.3) | ||
| Not comfortable | 13 (5.7) | ||
| Not necessary | 11 (4.8) | 233 (Total cases) |
Table 3
Exposure to hazards and health and safety challenges: Association between experiencing health and safety issues and exposure to hazards reported by miners in Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe, during the 2020 rainy season.
| CHARACTERISTIC | TOTAL | HEALTH & SAFETY CHALLENGES | OR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | (%)† | P VALUE | ||||
| Overall | 393 | 178 | (45) | |||
| Gender (n = 393) | ||||||
| Male | 326 | 148 | (45) | 1.0 (0.6–1.7) | 0.5 (0.2–1.4) | 0.1 |
| Female | 67 | 30 | (45) | Reference | Reference | |
| Age (n = 370) | ||||||
| >50 | 36 | 15 | (42) | Reference | Reference | |
| 36–50 | 128 | 59 | (46) | 1.7 (0.5–1.7) | 1.1 (0.4–3.3) | 0.9 |
| 18–35 | 206 | 90 | (44) | 1.3 (0.5–2.2) | 1.3 (0.5–3.3) | 0.7 |
| District (n =393) | ||||||
| Kadoma | 215 | 94 | (44) | Reference | Reference | |
| Shurugwi | 178 | 84 | (47) | 1.2 (0.8–1.7) | 1.1 (0.6–2) | 0.7 |
| Working underground n = (376) | ||||||
| Yes | 197 | 100 | (51) | 1.6 (1.1–2.4)** | 2.0 (1.1–5.0)** | 0.03** |
| No | 179 | 70 | (39) | Reference | Reference | |
| Moving up and down the shaft (n = 379) | ||||||
| Yes | 43 | 43 | (100) | 2.5 (2.5–3.3)** | – | 0.1 |
| No | 336 | 122 | 36) | Reference | Reference | |
| Crushing (n = 379) | ||||||
| Yes | 22 | 22 | (100) | 2.5 (2.0–2.5)* | – | 0.1 |
| No | 357 | 143 | (40) | Reference | Reference | |
| Opening shaft (n = 379) | ||||||
| Yes | 21 | 21 | (100) | 2.5 (2–2.5)** | – | 0.1 |
| No | 358 | 144 | 40) | Reference | Reference | |
| Workplace violence (n = 382) | ||||||
| Yes | 102 | 68 | (67) | 3.4 (2.1–5.5) ** | 3.3 (1.4–5.0)** | 0.002** |
| No | 280 | 103 | (37) | Reference | Reference | |
| Working hours (n = 379) | ||||||
| 17–24 | 45 | 31 | (69) | 2.5 (1.1–5.0)** | 2.8 (1.2–6.5) | 0.019 ** |
| 9–16 | 80 | 38 | (48) | 3.3 (1.7–5.0) | 1.4 (0.6–1.4) | 0.4 |
| 1–8 | 254 | 106 | (42) | Reference | Reference | |
[i] AOR = Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI = 2-sided confidence interval; † = row percentages; ** = statistically significant.
Table 4
Hazards and risks in ASGM: Identified hazards and weighted risk scores (%) from mining sites in Kadoma and Shurugwi, Zimbabwe, during the 2020 rainy season (n = 34).
| SITES (N) | SITES IN CATEGORY A 75–100% N (%) | MODE | MEDIAN | QUARTILES 25TH | 50TH | 75TH | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Environmental and physical hazards | |||||||
| Noise | 23 | 10(43) | 34(D) | 55(C) | 34(D) | 55(C) | 80(A) |
| Uncovered old mining pits | 21 | 5(24) | 40(D) | 58(C) | 42(D) | 58(C) | 75(A) |
| Stagnant water | 8 | 1(13) | 22(E) | 27(E) | 22(E) | 27(E) | 52(C) |
| Lack of toilets | 24 | 8(33) | 100(A) | 37(D) | 30(D) | 37(D) | 79(A) |
| Mine contaminated drinking water | 7 | 4(57) | I00(A) | 100(A) | 22(E) | 100(A) | 100(A) |
| Indecent shelter | 7 | 1(14) | 5(F) | 47(C) | 22(E) | 47(C) | 61(B) |
| Water pools in panning sites | 1 | 1(100) | 100(A) | 100(A) | 100(A) | 100(A) | 100(A) |
| Mining activities around homesteads | 15 | 6(40) | 100(A) | 64(B) | 30(D) | 64(B) | 81(A) |
| Electricity | 6 | 6(100) | 100(A) | 98(A) | 84(A) | 98(A) | 100(A) |
| Clutter | 8 | 3(36) | 100(A) | 46(C) | 25(E) | 46(C) | 94(A) |
| Lack of fencing/signage | 24 | 9(38) | 100(A) | 61(B) | 30(D) | 83(A) | 100(A) |
| Lack of PPE | 25 | 12(48) | 100(A) | 70(B) | 37(D) | 70 (B) | 94(A) |
| Mechanical hazards | |||||||
| Unsafe shaft support | 18 | 9(50) | 100(A) | 83(A) | 51(C) | 83(A) | 100(A) |
| Equipment | 19 | 8(42) | 68(B) | 68(B) | 52(C) | 68 (B) | 90(A) |
| Chemical hazards | |||||||
| Chemicals | 25 | 17(68) | 100(A) | 100(A) | 66(B) | 100(A) | 100(A) |
| Contamination of food | 6 | 1(17) | 32(D) | 32(D) | 24(E) | 32(D) | 72(B) |
| Mine contaminated drinking water | 7 | 4(57) | I00(A) | 100(A) | 22(E) | 100(A) | 100(A) |
| Chemical contamination of farmland | 7 | 4(57) | 32(D) | 80(A) | 32(D) | 80(A) | 100(A) |
| Mine waste | 20 | 4(20) | 22(E) | 43(D) | 35(D) | 43(D) | 68(B) |
| Silica dust | 29 | 16(55) | 65(B) | 75(A) | 65(B) | 75(A) | 86(A) |
| Ergonomic hazard(s) | |||||||
| Confined working space | 21 | 3(14) | 24(E) | 32(D) | 22(E) | 32(D) | 72(B) |
| Manual Lifting | 21 | 7(33) | 54(C) | 62(B) | 38(D) | 62(B) | 77(A) |
| Psycho-social hazards | |||||||
| Conflicts & violence | 5 | 1(20) | 32(D) | 40(D) | 34(D) | 40(D) | 68(B) |
| Child labor | 21 | 5(24) | 100(A) | 48(C) | 35(D) | 48(C) | 75(A) |
| Alcohol abuse & smoking | 11 | 7(64) | 100(A) | 100(A) | 24(E) | 100(A) | 100(A) |
| Prostitution | 6 | 4(67) | 100(A) | 90(A) | 71(B) | 90(A) | 100(A) |
| Security hazards | |||||||
| Lack of security guards on-site | 4 | 1(25) | 22(E) | 58(C) | 29(E) | 58(C) | 78(A) |
| Biological hazards | |||||||
| Crocodiles & snake bites (gold panning) | 5 | – | 22(E) | 43(D) | 29(E) | 43(D) | 55 (C) |
Table 5
Hazards, health and safety effects; and accessibility of healthcare: Reported miners’ experiences with hazards, health safety, environmental effects, and availability of health services from FGDs and IDIs conducted among miners in Kadoma and Shurugwi in the 2017 dry season, and the 2020 rainy season.
| THEMES | EXAMPLES OF QUOTES FROM IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS (IDIS) AND FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGDS) |
|---|---|
| Physical hazards | “Mining of pillars” – Male miner, 31 years old, IDI “noise from blasting and drilling from jackhammer without earmuffs” – Male miner, 70 years old, IDI |
| “Heat and limited working space underground” – Male miner, 48 years old, IDI | |
| “Most of the shafts have poor ventilation below the expected standards” – Male mine owner, FGD | |
| “Shaking during blasting causes cracks, falling rocks and collapsing mines” – Male miner, 25 years old, IDI | |
| “Rock falls, collapsing mines, breaking ropes. People can get injured or die” – Male miner, 48 years old, IDI | |
| “Incidences of mining in small holes where people get closed in, in the rain season, and most of such cases in informal mining are realized later” – Male miner, 70 years old, IDI | |
| Chemical hazards | “… dust especially from using the jackhammer” – Miner, FGD “Water for washing and drinking. In old shafts, the water can be contaminated with chemicals and acids from blasting fumes and acids” – Miner, FGD |
| “The issue is thirst has no timetable. One can get thirsty at any time, especially when one is working. So when you are working and dehydrated, you do not think of health issues; you think of quenching the thirst and going back to work. So when we see clear water and do not get immediate effects after drinking, we assume all is well. So when working underground, we drink the mine water underground” -Miner, FGD | |
| Lack of PPE | “Respirators are needed because those fumes from blasting can cause problems like TB. When the fumes are still there, there is a need to wear respirators. Respirators are needed; they must not run out. We are not using respirators because of a lack” – Miner, FGD “PPE wears out before one gets money for a replacement, and it is difficult to buy for oneself” – Male miner, 26 years old, IDI “We operate on share ownership. I have the capital to sponsor the mine, but both the mine owner and the miner must buy PPE. The challenge is if the mine owner provides PPE, the new miner can disappear in 2 hours, and you buy again for the next employee” – Mine owner, FGD |
| Biological hazards | “There is something … faced in mines, insects such as mosquitoes get in the mines and bite people. Then rodents and rats come with ticks. There are other places named Ticks where ticks are in an area with gold, and people get attacked and injured by ticks” – Mine owner, FGD “Another point I had forgotten, people get bitten by snakes, snakes hide in timbering. Yes, yes, yes, we have had serious cases where people get bitten by snakes and die. There is also the problem of scorpion bites” – Mine owner, FGD |
| Psycho-social hazards | “Taking drugs like marijuana is common in ASM.” – FGD with miners’ wives “you get sick because of stress” – Miner, FGD “There is also the challenge with ‘Member’ (machete gangs) who raid and attack miners” – Mine owner, FGD |
| Themes | Examples of effects of safety and health issues: losses and fatalities |
| Injuries, loss of ores, loss of body parts, and loss of ability to work | “There is also the challenge with …. many people raid and attack miners and get other people’s ores. They can siege mine owners to injure and raid them. There are many cases like that” – Mine owner, FGD “Loss of ability to work” – Male miner, 33 years old, IDI “Common accidents at the mill involve loss of fingers when collecting the sands (milled ore) from the box” – Male miner, 39 years old, IDI “Injuries from a mine collapse in the rain season” – Male miner, 33 years old, IDI One mill operator had an injured finger. He explained that he was fixing the hammer mill without gloves and was cut by loose parts of the hammer mill when he got injured. He acknowledged that the mine owner had provided gloves, but he was not using the gloves – Site observations |
| Fatalities | “There was a guy who got into the shaft alone, was closed, and died” – Male miner, 70 years old, IDI “Shaking during blasting causes cracks, falling rocks, and collapsing mines, which can cause fatal injuries beyond rescue. Catastrophic injuries are common once in a while” – Male miner, 29 years old, IDI “Another point I had forgotten…, people get bitten by snakes, snakes hide in timbering. Yes, yes, yes, we have had serious cases where people get bitten by snakes and die. There is also the problem of scorpion bites” – Mine owner, FGD “…many people die of mine accidents and collapsing mines” – Male miner, 70 years old, IDI “Accidents and loss of life due to lack of skilled blasters” – Male miner, 32 years old, IDI “For now, we mine for 5–6 years, and we die. This causes artisanal miners to die. Artisanal miners are dying’ – Miner, FGD |
| Accessibility of health services | “We do not go anywhere at all. We go only when we are in severe pain” – FGD with miners ”The hospital requires money; you have to raise your own money to go to the hospital, including money for transport. When you do not have [money] you just take paracetamol and keep working” – Miner, FGD “People can die without seeking health care. Delayed health-seeking is caused by transport challenges to get to the referral hospital” – Miner, FGD “It [accessing health care services] depends on whether you are injured or not. If injured, a police report is required.” – Miner, FGD ”…. if one gets approval to go to Kadoma General Hospital, there is no medicine at the hospital. We used to get medicine at the dispensary within the hospital, but now there is no medicine at Kadoma General Hospital. One has to go to town to get medicine from the pharmacy.” – Miner, FGD |