Figure 1
Map of the study locations (Source: GIS and Remote Sensing Software Arc Map 10.1 Department of Geography ABU, Zaria). (A) Map of Nigeria showing Jagawa State, a state in Northern Nigeria, which is has been identified as one of the few states lacking data on the prevalence of schistosomiasis [19]. (B) Detailed map of Jigawa State showing the local government areas (LGAs). The study locations are communities in Dutse LGA (yellow colour). (C) The expanded map of Dutse LGA showing the study area. The study communities were Jidawa and Zobiya, which are approximately 2 km apart and both walking distances from Warwade dam that is in between the communities. Warwade dam is a water body used by the locals for recreational, fishing, and agricultural purposes, and it was recently reported to be heavily infested with snails that transmit UgS [24].
Figure 2
The proportion of participants with adequate knowledge of KAP on UgS. (A) Parents. (B) Children. The participants were asked in the local language via a questionnaire about knowledge of schistosomiasis (described as blood in urine), its cause, whether they know that treatment is available for it, how it is contracted/transmitted, how it can be prevented, their feelings/concerns (attitudes) towards the disease, and their water contact activities/behavior (practice). Those with one correct response were coded as Yes and those with not a single correct response as NO. The results revealed that approximately 89% and 98% of adults and children, respectively, in the study communities lack adequate KAP on UgS.
Figure 3
Physical analyses of urine samples. (A) Visual inspection showing the extent of haematuria in representative samples. (B) Microscopy evaluation for identification of S. haematobium egg-positive samples. Urine samples were separated based on the presence or absence of visible haematuria and S. haematobium eggs. The results show that one of the 83 (1/83) children with haematuria was apparently not due to UgS, while haematuria in the remaining 82 was contributed to by UgS. As many as 106/196 of the non-visibly haematuric samples were positive for S. haematobium eggs, confirming that haematuria is not a reliable diagnostic of UgS.
Table 1
Relationship between demographic characteristics and behavior (water contact activity) on prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among school-aged children in selected communities in Jigawa State, Nigeria.
| LOCATION | JIDAWA (%) | ZOBIYA (%) | TOTAL (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | 90/137 (65.7) | 98/142 (69.0) | 188/279 (67.3) |
| Age group | |||
| 5–7 | 7/10 (70.0) | 47/63 (74.6) | 54/73 (80.0) |
| 8–10 | 25/45 (55.5) | 34/50 (68.0) | 59/95 (62.1) |
| 11–13 | 55/75 (73.3) | 17/29 (58.6) | 72/104 (69.2) |
| 14–16 | 3/7 (42.9) | 0/0 (0.0) | 3/7 (42.9) |
| P-value | 0.127 | 0.300 | 0.253 |
| Gender | |||
| Female | 33/60 (55.0) | 36/59 (61.0) | 69/119 (58.0) |
| Male | 57/77 (71.4) | 62/83 (74.7) | 119/160 (74.4) |
| P-value | 0.020 | 0.080 | 0.005 |
| Grade Level | |||
| 2 | 18/30 (60.0) | 19/28 (67.9) | 37/58 (63.8) |
| 3 | 18/35 (57.4) | 26/31 (83.9) | 44/66 (66.7) |
| 4 | 12/22 (54.5) | 20/30 (66.7) | 32/52 (61.5) |
| 5 | 25/25 (100.0) | 19/30 (63.4) | 44/55 (80.0) |
| 6 | 17/25 (68.0) | 14/23 (60.9) | 31/48 (64.6) |
| P-value | 0.001 | 0.035 | 0.003 |
| Water contact activity | |||
| Washing | 0/19 (0.0) | 30/44 (68.2) | 30/63 (47.6) |
| Irrigation farming | 29/39 (74.4) | 25/36 (69.4) | 54/75 (72.0) |
| Fishing | 0/0 (0.0) | 4/4 (100.0) | 4/4 (100.0) |
| Swimming | 61/79 (77.2) | 39/45 (86.7) | 100/124 (80.6) |
| None | 0/0 (0.0) | 0/13 (0.0) | 0/13 (0.0%) |
| P-value | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Figure 4
Intensity of UgS in the study communities. (A) and (B) Identification and counting of S. haematobium eggs in urine samples and comparison of egg density between positive urine samples with micro haematuria (A) and macro haematuria (B). Urine samples (10 mL) were filtered through a nucleopore membrane followed by addition of Lugol’s iodine solution to the membrane. The S. haematobium eggs were stained, making identification and diagnosis easy. (C) Parasite burden was based on WHO criteria [34]: 97% and 3% of the children have moderate (<50 eggs/10 mL) and high (≥50 eggs/10 mL) intensities of infection, respectively.
Table 2
Predisposing factors to urinary schistosomiasis in Jigawa State, Nigeria (n = 279).
| JIDAWA | ZOBIYA | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AGE GROUP | AOR, % (95% CI) | P-VALUE | AOR, % (95% CI) | P-VALUE |
| 5–7 | 1.0 | 0.07 | 1.0 | 0.13 |
| 8–10 | 2.5 (1.68–4.08) | 0.19 | 2.0 (1.26–4.21) | 0.15 |
| 11–13 | 1.3 (0.18–3.65) | 0.79 | 2.5 (1.03–5.14) | 0.05 |
| 14–16 | 1.9 (0.41–9.49) | 0.08 | 2.8 (0.20–5.55) | 0.29 |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 2.33 (1.13–4.79) | 0.021 | 1.9 (0.95–4.09) | 0.08 |
| Female | 1.08 (0.86–2.33) | 0.27 | 1.1 (0.44–3.26) | 0.08 |
| Water contact activity | 5.4 (0.99–28.9) | 0.007 | 4.1 (1.71–9.86) | 0.005 |
Table 3
Association between urinary schistosomiasis and haematuria among school-aged children in selected communities in Jigawa State, Nigeria.
| JIDAWA | ZOBIYA | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HAEMATURIA | NUMBER EXAMINED | NUMBER INFECTED (%) | NUMBER EXAMINED | NUMBER INFECTED (%) |
| Present | 59 | 59 (100) | 52 | 51 (98.1) |
| Absent | 78 | 31 (39.7) | 90 | 47 (52.2) |
| χ2- value | 54.1 | 32.5 | ||
| P-value | 0.001 | 0.003 | ||