Table 1
Summary distribution of children’s characteristics and nutrient intake (N = 193).
| VARIABLE | MEAN (±SD) | 95% CI |
|---|---|---|
| Blood Lead Levels (µg/dL) | 5.5 (± 2.6) | 5.1, 5.9 |
| HAZ | –1.0 (±1.2) | –1.2, –0.9 |
| Child’s age (years) | 6.9 (±1.4) | 6.7, 7.1 |
| Child’s birth weight | 3,090.7 (± 469.2) | 3024.5, 3156.9 |
| Mother’s age at birth (years) | 29.4 (± 26.2) | 25.7, 33.1 |
| Energy intake (%RDA) | 77.5 (± 28.5) | 73.5, 81.5 |
| Protein intake(%RDA) | 48.6 (± 21.3) | 45.6, 51.6 |
| Zinc intake (%RDA) | 100.5 (± 69.0) | 90.8, 110.3 |
| Calcium intake (%RDA) | 33.4 (± 40.3) | 27.7, 39.1 |
| Vitamin A intake (%RDA) | 81.6 (± 127.1) | 63.6, 99.5 |
| Vitamin C intake (%RDA) | 39.3 (± 52.9) | 31.9, 46.8 |
| Vitamin D intake (%RDA) | 60.1 (± 56.6) | 52.2, 68.1 |
| Phosphorus intake (%RDA) | 140.9 (± 66.6) | 130.6, 150.3 |
| Magnesium Intake (%RDA) | 128.2 (± 64.3) | 119.1, 137.2 |
Table 2
Categorical distribution of the children’s characteristics (N = 193).
| VARIABLE | N (%) |
|---|---|
| Stunting | |
| Not stunted | 148 (76.7) |
| Stunted | 45 (23.3) |
| Blood Lead Levels | |
| Normal (BLL < 5 µg/dL) | 82 (42.5) |
| Elevated (BLL > 5 µg/dL) | 111 (57.5) |
| Gender of child | |
| Girls | 122 (63.2) |
| Boys | 71 (36.8) |
| Child’s Age | |
| >5 years | 174 (90.2) |
| <5 years | 19 (9.8) |
| Childhood Diarrheal | |
| No chronic diarrheal history | 188 (97.4) |
| Chronic diarrheal history | 5 (2.6) |
| Mother’s Education | |
| Completed high school or higher | 94 (48.7) |
| Completed secondary school or less | 99 (51.3) |
| Mother’s age at birth | |
| Adult mother (20–34 years) | 144 (69.4) |
| Young or advanced mother (< 20 years or > 35 years) | 49 (30.6) |
| Child’s environment | |
| No environmental tobacco smoke | 79 (40.9) |
| Environmental tobacco smoke | 114 (59.1) |
| Residence | |
| Urban | 143 (74.1) |
| Rural | 50 (25.9) |
Table 3
Categorical distribution of children’s nutrient intakes (N = 193).
| VARIABLE | N (%) |
|---|---|
| Energy Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 74 (38.3) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 119 (61.7) |
| Protein intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 166 (86.0) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 27 (14.0) |
| Zinc Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 107 (55.4) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 86 (44.6) |
| Vitamin A Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 60 (31.1) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 133 (68.9) |
| Vitamin C Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 29 (15.0) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 164 (85.0) |
| Vitamin D Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 62 (32.1) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 131 (67.9) |
| Calcium Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 17 (8.8) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 176 (91.2) |
| Phosphorus Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 163 (84.5) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 30 (15.5) |
| Magnesium Intake | |
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 145 (75.1) |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 48 (24.9) |
Table 4
Association of Children’s Demographic Characteristics and Stunting Categories.
| VARIABLE | NOT STUNTED, N (%) | STUNTED, N (%) | P-VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Lead Levels | |||
| Normal (BLL < 5 µg/dL) | 78 (52.7) | 4 (8.9) | |
| Elevated (BLL > 5 µg/dL) | 70 (47.3) | 41 (91.1) | <0.001 |
| Gender of child | |||
| Girls | 94 (63.5) | 28 (62.2) | |
| Boys | 54 (36.5) | 17 (37.8) | 1.00 |
| Child’s Age | |||
| >5 years | 134 (90.5) | 40 (88.9) | |
| <5 years | 14 (9.5) | 5 (11.1) | 0.78 |
| Child’s birth weight | |||
| Normal birth weight | 139 (93.9) | 42 (93.3) | |
| Low birth weight | 9 (6.1) | 3 (6.7) | 1.00 |
| Childhood diarrheal | |||
| No chronic diarrheal history | 142 (98.0) | 43 (95.6) | |
| History of chronic diarrheal | 3 (2.0) | 2 (4.4) | 0.33 |
| Mother’s Education | |||
| Completed high school or higher | 77 (52.0) | 17 (37.8) | |
| Completed secondary school or less | 71 (48.0) | 28 (62.2) | 0.13 |
| Mother’s age at birth | |||
| Adult mother (20–34 years) | 113 (76.3) | 31 (68.9) | |
| Young or advanced mother (< 20 years or > 35 years) | 35 (23.7) | 14 (31.1) | 0.42 |
| Child’s environment | |||
| No environmental tobacco smoke | 63 (42.6) | 16 (35.6) | |
| Environmental tobacco smoke | 85 (57.4) | 29 (64.4) | 0.51 |
| Residence | |||
| Urban | 117 (79.0) | 26 (57.8) | |
| Rural | 31 (21.0) | 19 (42.2) | 0.008 |
Table 5
Association of Children’s Nutrient Intake (based on RDA) and Stunting Categories.
| VARIABLE | NOT STUNTED, N (%) | STUNTED, N (%) | P-VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Energy Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 61 (41.2) | 13 (28.9) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 87 (58.8) | 32 (71.1) | 0.19 |
| Protein intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 131 (88.5) | 35 (77.8) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 17 (11.5) | 10 (22.2) | 0.12 |
| Zinc Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 88 (59.5) | 19 (42.2) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 60 (40.5) | 26 (57.8) | 0.06 |
| Vitamin A Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 56 (37.8) | 4 (8.9) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 92 (62.2) | 41 (91.1) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 23 (15.5) | 6 (13.3) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 125 (84.5) | 39 (86.7) | 0.90 |
| Vitamin D Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 50 (33.8) | 12 (26.7) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 98 (66.2) | 33 (73.3) | 0.48 |
| Calcium Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 16 (10.8) | 1 (2.2) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 132 (89.2) | 44 (97.8) | 0.13 |
| Phosphorus Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 130 (87.8) | 33 (73.3) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 18 (12.2) | 12 (26.7) | 0.03 |
| Magnesium Intake | |||
| Adequate (>80% RDA) | 12 (75.7) | 33 (73.3) | |
| Inadequate (<80% RDA) | 36 (24.3) | 12 (26.7) | 0.90 |
Table 6
Association between stunting and elevated BLL and Other Predictors.
| VARIABLE | CRUDE OR | 95% CI | P-VALUE | ADJUSTED OR | 95% CI | P-VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Lead Levels | ||||||
| Elevated (BLL > 5 µg/dL) | 11.4 | 3.9–33.5 | <0.001 | 9.8 | 3.1–30.7 | <0.001 |
| Mother’s Education | ||||||
| Completed junior secondary school or less | 1.8 | 0.9–3.5 | 0.10 | 1.0 | 0.4–2.2 | 0.96 |
| Residence | ||||||
| Rural | 2.8 | 1.4–5.6 | 0.005 | 3.7 | 1.6–8.9 | 0.003 |
| Energy Intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 1.7 | 0.8–3.6 | 0.14 | 2.2 | 0.8–5.7 | 0.12 |
| Protein intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 2.2 | 0.9–5.3 | 0.07 | 0.8 | 0.2–2.9 | 0.71 |
| Zinc Intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 2.0 | 1.0–3.9 | 0.04 | 0.6 | 0.2–1.7 | 0.39 |
| Vitamin A Intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 6.2 | 2.1–18.4 | 0.001 | 5.4 | 1.4–20.3 | 0.01 |
| Calcium Intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 2.6 | 1.2–6.0 | 0.02 | 1.3 | 0.1–15.0 | 0.83 |
| Phosphorus Intake | ||||||
| <80% RDA | 2.6 | 1.2–6.0 | 0.02 | 1.8 | 0.5–6.0 | 0.37 |