Figure 1
Conceptual framework illustrating the determinants and impacts of air pollution and the interactions between air pollution and climate change. The diagram illustrates the linkages between air pollution and climate change. In the centre, yellow arrows represent the connections between air pollution and climate change (shown in purple). The left side of the diagram focuses on air pollution‑related factors, including its primary sources (top left: green and yellow circles), the health impacts of pollution (green circle) and climate‑related variables influencing air pollution (green box). Targeted interventions (green circle) that address both air pollution and climate change offer co‑benefits across sectors such as health, environment, and socioeconomic development. Vulnerable populations in LMICs, positioned at the foundation of the diagram, are central to understanding these relationships. The right side of the diagram, associated with climate change, is greyed out, as it is beyond the scope of this review.
Figure 2
The population‑weighted annual average PM2.5 exposures in the African sub regions [40].
Figure 3
Impact of increased fossil fuel consumption on mortality: additional premature deaths in African countries due to PM2.5 exposure in 2030 compared with 2012 [45].