Table 1
Characteristics of the studied sample, Maputo City Household Survey, 2022.
| NONE* (N = 1,385) | HYPERTENSION (N = 364) | DIABETES (N = 71) | TOTAL (N = 1,820) | P VALUE (X2) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age of participant, years | 32.9 (9.1) | 33.8 (8.8) | 33.1 (9.9) | 33.1 (9.0) | 0.197 |
| Food insecurity Food secure Food insecure | 355 (25.6%) 1,030 (74.4%) | 23 (6.3%) 341 (93.7%) | 8 (11.3%) 63 (88.7%) | 386 (21.2%) 1,434 (78.8%) | <0.001 |
| Municipal district KaMaxaquene KaMubukwana KaMavota Nlhamankulu | 377 (27.2%) 331 (23.9%) 323 (23.3%) 354 (25.6%) | 64 (17.6%) 109 (29.9%) 111 (30.5%) 80 (22.0%) | 25 (35.2%) 18 (25.4%) 12 (16.9%) 16 (22.5%) | 466 (25.6%) 458 (25.2%) 446 (24.5%) 450 (24.7%) | <0.001 |
| Sex of participant Male Female | 500 (36.1%) 885 (63.9%) | 132 (36.3%) 232 (63.7%) | 24 (33.8%) 47 (66.2%) | 656 (36.0%) 1,164 (64.0%) | 0.921 |
| Head of household Male Female Household size Number of children | 1,018 (73.5%) 367 (26.5%) 4.7 (1.0) 2.0 (0.8) | 235 (64.6%) 129 (35.4%) 4.8 (0.8) 2.2 (0.7) | 50 (70.4%) 21 (29.6%) 4.8 (0.9) 2.1 (0.9) | 1,303 (71.6%) 517 (28.4%) 4.7 (0.9) 2.0 (0.8) | 0.003 0.056 <0.001 |
| Marital status Single/separated Married/marital union | 434 (31.3%) 951 (68.7%) | 147 (40.4%) 217 (59.6%) | 27 (38.0%) 44 (62.0%) | 608 (33.4%) 1,212 (66.6%) | 0.003 |
| Food diversity Low Medium High | 618 (44.6%) 487 (35.2%) 280 (20.2%) | 287 (78.8%) 59 (16.2%) 18 (4.9%) | 49 (69.0%) 17 (23.9%) 5 (7.0%) | 954 (52.4%) 563 (30.9%) 303 (16.6%) | <0.001 |
| Work Unpaid work Paid work | 637 (46.0%) 748 (54.0%) | 214 (58.8%) 150 (41.2%) | 42 (59.2%) 29 (40.8) | 893 (49.1%) 927 (50.9%) | <0.001 |
| Education Primary/secondary High school/university | 519 (37.5%) 866 (62.5%) | 261 (71.7%) 103 (28.3%) | 44 (62.0%) 27 (38.0%) | 824 (45.3%) 996 (54.7%) | <0.001 |
| Income Low income Middle income High income | 385 (27.8%) 536 (38.7%) 464 (33.5%) | 241 (66.2%) 80 (22.0%) 43 (11.8%) | 29 (40.8%) 25 (35.2%) 17 (23.9%) | 655 (36.0%) 641 (35.2%) 524 (28.8%) | <0.001 |
[i] *No metabolic disease.
Table 2
Association between food insecurity and self‑reported hypertension and diabetes by socio‑demographic characteristics, Maputo City Household Survey, 2022.
| METABOLIC INDEXA | B | STANDARD ERROR | WALD | DF | P VALUE | ODDS RATIO | [95% CI] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hypertension | Intercept | −2.667 | 0.475 | 31.563 | 1 | <,001 | |||
| Food insecurity | 1.113 | 0.179 | 38.886 | 1 | <0.001 | 3.045 | 2.146 | 4.320 | |
| Food diversity | −0.111 | 0.185 | 0.360 | 1 | 0.548 | 0.895 | 0.622 | 1.287 | |
| Income | −0.237 | 0.155 | 2.326 | 1 | 0.127 | 0.789 | 0.582 | 1.070 | |
| Work | 0.211 | 0.150 | 1.987 | 1 | 0.159 | 1.235 | 0.921 | 1.657 | |
| Education | −0.641 | 0.179 | 12.807 | 1 | <0.001 | 0.527 | 0.371 | 0.748 | |
| Age of participant | 0.175 | 0.078 | 5.002 | 1 | 0.025 | 1.192 | 1.022 | 1.389 | |
| FI × Income | 0.479 | 0.235 | 4.152 | 1 | 0.042 | 1.615 | 1.018 | 2.561 | |
| FI × Work | −0.333 | 0.359 | 0.861 | 1 | 0.353 | 0.717 | 0.355 | 1.448 | |
| FI × Education | 0.276 | 0.442 | 0.388 | 1 | 0.533 | 1.317 | 0.554 | 3.135 | |
| Municipal district | 0.033 | 0.058 | 0.328 | 1 | 0.567 | 1.034 | 0.923 | 1.157 | |
| Diabetes | Intercept | −4.491 | 0.823 | 29.763 | 1 | <0.001 | |||
| Food insecurity | 1.248 | 0.307 | 16.563 | 1 | <0.001 | 3.482 | 1.909 | 6.351 | |
| Food diversity | −0.564 | 0.312 | 3.276 | 1 | 0.070 | 0.569 | 0.309 | 1.048 | |
| Income | 0.817 | 0.247 | 10.973 | 1 | <0.001 | 2.265 | 1.396 | 3.674 | |
| Work | −0.149 | 0.271 | 0.303 | 1 | 0.582 | 0.862 | 0.507 | 1.465 | |
| Education | −0.494 | 0.295 | 2.795 | 1 | 0.095 | 0.610 | 0.342 | 1.089 | |
| Age of participant | −0.066 | 0.138 | 0.232 | 1 | 0.630 | 0.936 | 0.715 | 1.225 | |
| FI × Income | −0.144 | 0.453 | 0.100 | 1 | 0.751 | 0.866 | 0.356 | 2.106 | |
| FI × Work | 0.123 | 0.628 | 0.039 | 1 | 0.844 | 1.131 | 0.330 | 3.878 | |
| FI × Education | 0.937 | 0.858 | 1.192 | 1 | 0.275 | 2.552 | 0.475 | 13.715 | |
| Municipal district | −0.254 | 0.101 | 6.316 | 1 | 0.012 | 0.776 | 0.636 | 0.946 | |
[i] A The reference category is: no metabolic disease.
Figure 1
Adjusted prediction of the influence of educational attainment on the association between food insecurity (FI) and metabolic diseases.
Figure 2
Adjusted prediction of the influence of income on the association between food insecurity (FI) and metabolic diseases.
Figure 3
Adjusted prediction of the influence of employment status on the association between food insecurity (FI) and metabolic diseases.