Figure 1
Flowchart.
COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019.
Table 1
Baseline characteristics of the study participants with COVID-19.
| CHARACTERISTICS | DEATH (N = 32) | ALIVE (N = 211) | P VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | |||
| Mean ± SD (years) | 54.2 ± 14 | 47.1 ± 14.3 | 0.009 |
| Age ≥ 45 years (%) | 81.3 | 57.3 | 0.010 |
| Sex, male (%) | 53.1 | 53.1 | 0.996 |
| Symptoms on admission | |||
| Cephalgia (%) | 15.6 | 23.7 | 0.309 |
| Fever (%) | 56.3 | 46 | 0.278 |
| Cough (%) | 71.9 | 55 | 0.072 |
| Dyspnea (%) | 56.3 | 35.5 | 0.025 |
| Dysphagia (%) | 9.4 | 13.7 | 0.496 |
| Rhinorrhea (%) | 3.1 | 9.5 | 0.233 |
| Chest pain (%) | 6.3 | 3.8 | 0.514 |
| Nausea (%) | 21.9 | 31.8 | 0.258 |
| Diarrhea (%) | 0 | 6.6 | 0.133 |
| Dyspepsia (%) | 25 | 16.1 | 0.215 |
| Comorbidities | |||
| Hypertension (%) | 53.1 | 29.4 | 0.008 |
| Cardiovascular disease (%) | 25 | 12.8 | 0.067 |
| Diabetes mellitus (%) | 43.8 | 17.1 | 0.001 |
| Chronic kidney disease (%) | 9.4 | 3.8 | 0.164 |
| Asthma (%) | 0 | 2.8 | 0.425 |
| Tuberculosis (%) | 9.4 | 5.2 | 0.275 |
| Obesity (%) | 37.5 | 14.2 | 0.001 |
| Vital signs on admission | |||
| BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg (%) | 34.4 | 40 | 0.544 |
| Heart rates > 100 beats/min (%) | 43.8 | 31.3 | 0.162 |
| Immediate need of supplemental oxygen | <0.001 | ||
| HFNC and/or IMV (%) | 65.6 | 6.2 | |
| Nasal cannula up to NRM (%) | 28.1 | 29.4 | |
| Not needed (%) | 6.3 | 64.5 | |
| Radiologic findings | |||
| Cardiomegaly (%) | 40.6 | 20.4 | 0.011 |
| Treatment in hospital | |||
| Antibiotics (%) | 96.9 | 88.2 | 0.137 |
| Oseltamivir (%) | 93.8 | 88.6 | 0.382 |
| Chloroquine (%) | 65.6 | 45 | 0.030 |
[i] COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019, SD = standard deviation, BP = blood pressure, HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula, IMV = invasive mechanical ventilation, NRM = non-rebreather mask.
Table 2
Laboratory findings on admission in patients with COVID-19.
| VARIABLES | DEATH (N = 32) | ALIVE (N = 211) | P VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hemoglobin (g/dL, median [range]) | 12.5 [7.6–16.9] | 13.2 [5.7–18.3] | 0.118–0.059 |
| White blood cells (/µL) | |||
| Median [range] | 9700 [4460–28860] | 8540 [2790–35450] | 0.049–0.024 |
| Distribution – abnormal WBC (%) | 40.6 | 22.7 | 0.030 |
| Hematocrite (%, median [range]) | 36.1 [20.9–49.7] | 37.9 [17–52.1] | 0.145–0.072 |
| Platelet (/µL) | |||
| Mean ± SD | 230781 ± 92319 | 275110 ± 100158 | 0.019 |
| Distribution – abnormal PLT (%) | 21.9 | 13.3 | 0.153 |
| Red cell distribution width (%) | |||
| Median [range] | 13.8 [11.7–19.6] | 13.1 [11.3–38] | 0.006–0.003 |
| Distribution – abnormal RDW (%) | 43.8 | 22.9 | 0.012 |
| Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio | |||
| Median [range] | 8.66 [1.91–30.50] | 3.37 [0.31–47.15] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – NLR > 3.13 (%) | 84.4 | 54 | 0.001 |
| Absolute lymphocyte count (/µL) | |||
| Median [range] | 1008 [242–7821] | 1588 [16–6219] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – ALC < 1,000 (%) | 50 | 18.5 | <0.001 |
| Random blood glucose (mg/dL) | |||
| Median [range] | 142 [63–550] | 114 [64–522] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – RBG ≥ 200 (%) | 28.1 | 12.3 | 0.018 |
| Blood urea nitrogen (mg/dL, median [range]) | 51.8 [13–362.6] | 21.4 [3.4–184] | <0.001 |
| Creatinine (mg/dL) | |||
| Median [range] | 1.46 [0.59–16.12] | 0.87 [0.36–105] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – Cr > 1.2 (%) | 62.5 | 22.7 | <0.001 |
| C-reactive protein (mg/dL) | |||
| Median [range] | 11.2 [0.38–31.29] | 1.90 [0–32] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – CRP > 10 (%) | 62.5 | 26.5 | <0.001 |
| D-dimer (ng/mL) | |||
| Median [range] | 2922 [590–10000] | 987 [141–15441] | <0.001 |
| Distribution – D-dimer > 500 (%) | 93.8 | 46.9 | <0.001 |
| n = 21 | n = 148 | ||
| Alanine transaminase (U/L, median [range]) | 38 [10–480] | 28.5 [4–247] | 0.06–0.03 |
| Aspartate transaminase (U/L, median [range]) | 55 [15–1500] | 26 [12–269] | <0.001 |
| n = 32 | n = 149 | ||
| Sodium (mEq/L, median [range]) | 134 [119–159] | 138 [109–152] | 0.005–0.002 |
| Potassium (mEq/L, median [range]) | 4.16 [2.8–8] | 3.63 [1.62 -4.93] | <0.001 |
| Chloride (mEq/L, median [range]) | 104 [88–115] | 105 [90–114] | 0.823–0.411 |
[i] COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019, abnormal WBC = WBC < 4000 or > 11000 (/µL), abnormal PLT = PLT < 150000 or > 450000 (/µL), abnormal RDW = RDW > 14%.
Table 3
Univariate analysis of prognostic factors for overall mortality in COVID-19.
| PROGNOSTIC FACTORS | OR (95% CI) | P VALUE |
|---|---|---|
| Age | ||
| ≥45 years | 3.22 (1.27–8.16) | 0.010 |
| <45 years | Reference | |
| Dyspnea | ||
| Yes | 2.33 (1.10–4.95) | 0.025 |
| No | Reference | |
| Hypertension | ||
| Yes | 2.72 (1.28–5.79) | 0.008 |
| No | Reference | |
| Diabetes mellitus | ||
| Yes | 3.78 (1.72–8.29) | 0.001 |
| No | Reference | |
| Obesity | ||
| Yes | 3.62 (1.60–8.16) | 0.001 |
| No | Reference | |
| Immediate need of supplemental oxygen | ||
| HFNC and/or IMV | 109.85 (23.13–521.70) | <0.001 |
| Nasal cannula up to NRM | 9.87 (2.07–47.04) | 0.004 |
| Not needed | Reference | |
| Cardiomegaly | ||
| Yes | 2.67 (1.22–5.84) | 0.011 |
| No | Reference | |
| Abnormal WBC | ||
| Yes | 2.32 (1.07–5.05) | 0.030 |
| No | Reference | |
| Abnormal RDW | ||
| Yes | 2.62 (1.22–5.66) | 0.012 |
| No | Reference | |
| NLR | ||
| >3.13 | 4.60 (1.70–12.39) | 0.001 |
| ≤3.13 | Reference | |
| ALC | ||
| <1,000/µL | 4.41 (2.03–9.58) | <0.001 |
| ≥1,000/µL | Reference | |
| D-dimer | ||
| >500 ng/mL | 16.97 (3.95–72.83) | <0.001 |
| ≤500 ng/mL | Reference | |
| CRP | ||
| >10 mg/dL | 4.61 (2.11–10.04) | <0.001 |
| ≤10 mg/dL | Reference | |
| RBG | ||
| ≥200 mg/dL | 2.78 (1.16–6.67) | 0.018 |
| <200 mg/dL | Reference | |
| Creatinine | ||
| >1.2 mg/dL | 5.66 (2.58–12.40) | <0.001 |
| ≤1.2 mg/dL | Reference | |
| Treatment – Chloroquine | ||
| Yes | 2.33 (1.07–5.08) | 0.030 |
| No | Reference |
[i] COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019, OR = odds ratio, CI = confidence interval, HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula, IMV = invasive mechanical ventilation, NRM = non-rebreather mask, WBC = white blood cells, RDW = red cell distribution width, NLR = neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, ALC = absolute lymphocyte count, CRP = C-reactive protein, RBG = random blood glucose.
Table 4
Multivariate logistic regression analysis of prognostic factors for mortality in COVID-19.
| PROGNOSTIC FACTORS | OVERALL MORTALITY | |
|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | P VALUE | |
| Age > 45 year | 1.26 (0.30–5.28) | 0.754 |
| Dyspnea | 1.58 (0.47–5.25) | 0.458 |
| Hypertension | 3.59 (1.12–11.48) | 0.031 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 0.69 (0.16–2.97) | 0.617 |
| Obesity | 6.34 (1.68–23.98) | 0.007 |
| Oxygen – nasal cannula up to NRM | 2.99 (0.54–16.42) | 0.207 |
| Oxygen – HFNC and/or IMV | 64.93 (11.08–380.61) | <0.001 |
| Cardiomegaly | 1.22 (0.31–4.82) | 0.781 |
| Abnormal WBC count | 1.96 (0.55–7.06) | 0.301 |
| Abnormal RDW | 3.68 (1.09–12.34) | 0.035 |
| NLR > 3.13 | 0.48 (0.10–2.20) | 0.344 |
| ALC < 1000/µL | 3.51 (1.08–11.44) | 0.038 |
| D–dimer > 500 ng/mL | 9.36 (1.53–57.12) | 0.015 |
| CRP > 10 mg/dL | 1.03 (0.30–3.56) | 0.961 |
| RBG ≥ 200 mg/dL | 3.24 (0.76–13.92) | 0.113 |
| Creatinine > 1.2 mg/dL | 1.85 (0.56–6.16) | 0.316 |
| Treatment – Chloroquine | 3.61 (1.09–11.99) | 0.036 |
[i] COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019, OR = odds ratio, CI = confidence interval, HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula, IMV = invasive mechanical ventilation, NRM = non-rebreather mask, WBC = white blood cells, RDW = red cell distribution width, NLR = neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, ALC = absolute lymphocyte count, CRP = C-reactive protein, RBG = random blood glucose.
Figure 2
Overall mortality rates of COVID-19 according to the presence of prognostic factors.
COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019.