Figure 1
The sampling flowchart.
Table 1
Socio-behavioral, cardio-metabolic and spiritual characteristics of participants by sex.
| MALE (n = 1341) | FEMALE (n = 1908) | |
|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 53.58 ± 8.89 | 53.00 ± 8.76 |
| Education level | ||
| Primary | 319 (23.8) | 694 (36.4) |
| Secondary | 604 (45.0) | 823 (43.2) |
| Higher | 418 (31.2) | 390 (20.5) |
| Occupational status | ||
| Unemployed | 334 (24.9) | 1647 (86.4) |
| Employed | 1006 (75.1) | 260 (13.6) |
| Marital status | ||
| Unmarried | 49 (3.7) | 317 (16.6) |
| Married | 1290 (96.3) | 1588 (83.4) |
| Physical activity | ||
| Low | 520 (39.7) | 475 (25.1) |
| Moderate | 504 (38.4) | 1207 (63.7) |
| High | 287 (21.9) | 214 (11.3) |
| Family history of CVD | 22 (1.6) | 63 (3.3) |
| Smoking | 270 (20.1) | 50 (2.6) |
| BMI (Kg/m2) | 27.82 ± 4.31 | 29.77 ± 4.94 |
| CHOL (mg/dl) | 189.06 ± 37.06 | 198.38 ± 39.35 |
| FBS (mg/dl) | 103.91 ± 32.13 | 99.84 ± 28.58 |
| Diabetes | 226 (16.9) | 334 (17.5) |
| SBP (mm Hg) | 120.29 ± 15.57 | 114.42 ± 16.74 |
| DBP (mm Hg) | 80.25 ± 9.42 | 75.87 ± 9.47 |
| Anti-hypertension drug | 165 (12.3) | 341 (17.9) |
| Total spiritual health score* | 89.18 (9.41) | 91.09 (6.97) |
| Behavioral component | 85.76 (11.11) | 88.10 (8.77) |
| Cognitive/emotional component | 91.63 (9.75) | 93.23 (7.37) |
[i] Data are presented as numbers (%) or mean (SD). The total spiritual health score, as well as its behavioral and cognitive/emotional components, were significantly different between men and women (p < 0.001).
Figure 2
Histograms of the ACC-AHA risk score in males and females.
Figure 3
Histograms of logarithm scale of the ACC-AHA risk score in males and females.
Table 2
Socio-behavioral and cardio-metabolic characteristics based on the spiritual health tertiles in participants.
| MALE | FEMALE | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1ST TERTILE | 2ND TERTILE | 3RD TERTILE | p-VALUE | 1ST TERTILE | 2ND TERTILE | 3RD TERTILE | p-VALUE | |
| Age (years) | 50.53 ± 7.95 | 53.8 ± 8.58 | 56.45 ± 9.11 | 3 × 10–23 | 51.25 ± 8.02 | 53.04 ± 8.73 | 54.57 ± 9.16 | 9 × 10–11 |
| Education level | 2 × 10–6 | 7 × 10–9 | ||||||
| Primary | 91 (20.1) | 84 (19.0) | 144 (32.2) | 165 (27.3) | 237 (36.5) | 292 (44.7) | ||
| Secondary | 196 (43.3) | 220 (49.9) | 188 (42.1) | 295 (48.8) | 271 (41.7) | 257 (39.4) | ||
| Higher | 166 (36.6) | 137 (31.1) | 115 (25.7) | 144 (23.8) | 142 (21.8) | 104 (15.9) | ||
| Occupational status | 4 × 10–8 | 0.008 | ||||||
| Unemployed | 143 (32.1) | 120 (27.2) | 71 (15.7) | 501 (82.9) | 566 (87.1) | 580 (88.8) | ||
| Employed | 382 (84.3) | 321 (72.8) | 303 (67.9) | 103 (17.1) | 84 (12.9) | 73 (11.2) | ||
| Marital status | 0.246 | 0.724 | ||||||
| Unmarried | 22 (4.9) | 13 (3.0) | 14 (3.1) | 103 (17.1) | 102 (15.7) | 112 (17.2) | ||
| Married | 501 (82.9) | 548 (84.3) | 539 (82.8) | 431 (95.1) | 426 (97.0) | 433 (96.9) | ||
| Physical activity | 0.462 | 0.961 | ||||||
| Low | 176 (39.6) | 170 (39.3) | 174 (40.1) | 150 (25.0) | 150 (23.1) | 175 (27.0) | ||
| Moderate | 384 (63.9) | 428 (66.0) | 395 (61.1) | 170 (38.3) | 172 (39.7) | 162 (37.3) | ||
| High | 98 (22.1) | 91 (21.0) | 98 (22.6) | 67 (11.1) | 70 (10.8) | 77 (11.9) | ||
| Family history of CVD | 8 (1.8) | 5 (1.1) | 9 (2.0) | 0.568 | 22 (3.6) | 16 (2.5) | 25 (3.8) | 0.326 |
| Smoking | 127 (28.0) | 83 (18.8) | 60 (13.4) | 2 × 10–7 | 29 (4.8) | 12 (1.8) | 9 (1.4) | 2 × 10–4 |
| BMI(Kg/m2) | 27.72 ± 4.4 | 27.88 ± 4.17 | 27.85 ± 4.35 | 0.847 | 29.56 ± 5.02 | 29.53 ± 4.77 | 30.21 ± 5.02 | 0.021 |
| CHOL(mg/dl) | 193.52 ± 36.85 | 188.21 ± 38.14 | 185.36 ± 35.77 | 35 × 10–4 | 199 ± 38 | 199.08 ± 39.69 | 197.11 ± 40.25 | 0.595 |
| FBS(mg/dl) | 101.96 ± 29.96 | 104.91 ± 34.11 | 104.9 ± 32.2 | 0.284 | 97.5 ± 26.84 | 99.44 ± 27.51 | 102.4 ± 30.93 | 0.011 |
| Diabetes | 61 (13.5) | 83 (18.8) | 82 (18.3) | 0.060 | 89 (14.7) | 110 (16.9) | 135 (20.7) | 0.019 |
| SBP(mm Hg) | 118.83 ± 14.82 | 119.88 ± 15.75 | 122.16 ± 15.97 | 0.005 | 112.48 ± 15.79 | 113.78 ± 16.16 | 116.86 ± 17.87 | 2 × 10–5 |
| DBP(mm Hg) | 80.04 ± 8.99 | 80.62 ± 10.12 | 80.09 ± 9.14 | 0.600 | 75.67 ± 9.6 | 75.9 ± 9.46 | 76.03 ± 9.37 | 0.790 |
| Anti-hypertension drug | 37 (8.2) | 62 (14.1) | 66 (14.8) | 0.004 | 93 (15.4) | 117 (18.0) | 131 (20.1) | 0.097 |
[i] The 1st and 3rd tertiles represent the most minor and highest spiritual health scores, respectively.
Data are presented as numbers (%) or mean (SD). Bold values were significant at p < 0.004 based on the Benjamin-Hochberg procedure.
Table 3
The association between spiritual health scores and logarithm scale of ACC-AHA risk scores: Results of linear regression models according to sex.
| MALE | FEMALE | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β (95% CI) | p-VALUE | β (95% CI) | p-VALUE | ||
| Model 1 | 2nd vs. 1st tertile | –0.10 (–0.18, 0.02) | 0.015 | –0.03 (–0.09, 0.04) | 0.429 |
| 3rd vs. 1st tertile | –0.16 (–0.24, –0.08) | <0.001 | 0.03 (–0.04, 0.09) | 0.473 | |
| Model 2 | 2nd vs. 1st tertile | –0.11 (–0.19, –0.04) | 0.004 | –0.02 (–0.08, 0.05) | 0.548 |
| 3rd vs. 1st tertile | –0.18 (–0.26, –0.10) | <0.001 | 0.01 (-0.06, 0.07) | 0.758 | |
[i] * β represents the difference in the logarithm scale of ACC-AHA risk scores at 2nd and 3rd tertiles of spiritual health scores compared to the 1st tertile (the least spiritual score); CI: confidence interval.
Model 1 is adjusted for age.
Model 2 is adjusted for age, education level, occupation status, and BMI.