Table 1
Basal characteristics, and risk factors of all patients in both groups.
| GROUP I (N = 840) (CVD GROUP) | GROUP II (N = 860) (CONTROL GROUP) | P VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years | 55.61 ± 11.2 | 54.78 ± 9.12 | 0.094 |
| Male gender, n (%) | 436 (51.9%) | 429 (49.9%) | 0.405 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 298 (35.5%) | 262 (30.5%) | 0.028* |
| Controlled hypertension, n (%) | 108 (12.9%) | 122 (14.2%) | 0.423 |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 239 (28.5%) | 208 (24.2%) | 0.046* |
| Controlled diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 155 (18.5%) | 177 (20.6%) | 0.268 |
| Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 311 (37.0%) | 272 (31.6%) | 0.019* |
| Obstructive sleep apnea, n (%) | 26 (3.1%) | 30 (3.5%) | 0.650 |
| Smoking, n (%) | 186 (22.1%) | 156 (18.1%) | 0.040* |
| Atrial fibrillation, n (%) | 61 (7.3%) | 44 (5.1%) | 0.066 |
| Ischemic heart diseases, n (%) | 599 (71.3%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.001* |
| Cerebrovascular diseases, n (%) | 203 (24.2%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.001* |
| Peripheral arterial diseases, n (%) | 224 (26.7%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.001* |
| Chronic kidney diseases, n (%) | 41 (4.9%) | 43 (5.0%) | 0.910 |
| Family history of IHD, n (%) | 80 (9.5%) | 89 (10.3%) | 0.570 |
| Obesity, n (%) | 277 (33.0%) | 243 (28.3%) | 0.035* |
| Anti-hypertensive medication use, n (%) | 240 (28.6%) | 237 (27.6%) | 0.642 |
| Cholesterol-lowering medication use, n (%) | 283 (33.7%) | 254 (29.5%) | 0.065 |
| Anti-platelet medication use, n (%) | 317 (37.7%) | 306 (35.6%) | 0.356 |
| Metabolic syndrome, n (%) | 296 (35.2%) | 242 (28.1%) | 0.002* |
[i] *: significant P value, IHD; ischemic heart disease.
Table 2
Socioeconomic factors of all patients in both groups.
| GROUP I (N = 840) (CVD GROUP) | GROUP II (N = 860) (CONTROL GROUP) | P VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Psychosocial stress, n (%) | 380 (45.2%) | 321 (37.3%) | 0.001* |
| Perceived Stress Scale | |||
| 0–13: low stress, n (%) | 86 (10.2%) | 110 (12.8%) | 0.099 |
| 14–26: moderate stress, n (%) | 125 (14.9%) | 122 (14.2%) | 0.684 |
| 27–40: high perceived stress, n (%) | 169 (20.1%) | 89 (10.3%) | 0.001* |
| Inadequate sleep, n (%) | 110 (13.1%) | 125 (14.5%) | 0.390 |
| Lack of physical activity, n (%) | 387 (46.1%) | 351 (40.8%) | 0.029* |
| Dietary habits | |||
| Excess sugar-sweetened beverages/day, n (%) | 325 (28.0%) | 224 (26.0%) | 0.370 |
| Excess salt intake, n (%) | 202 (24.0%) | 190 (22.1%) | 0.339 |
| Adequate fruits and vegetables/day, n (%) | 146 (17.4%) | 160 (18.6%) | 0.511 |
| High-fat, processed, and fast food, n (%) | 283 (33.7%) | 233 (27.1%) | 0.003* |
| Marital status | |||
| Married, n (%) | 611 (72.7%) | 648 (75.3%) | 0.220 |
| Separated/Divorced/Single, n (%) | 229 (27.3%) | 212 (24.7%) | |
| Income category | |||
| High income, n (%) | 325 (38.7%) | 379 (44.1%) | 0.024* |
| Low income, n (%) | 515 (61.3%) | 481 (55.9%) | |
| Level of education | |||
| Bachelor’s degree or higher, n (%) | 396 (47.1%) | 444 (51.6%) | 0.064 |
| High school or less, n (%) | 444 (52.9%) | 416 (48.4%) | |
| Residence | |||
| Urban, n (%) | 362 (43.1%) | 384 (44.7%) | 0.518 |
| Rural, n (%) | 478 (56.9%) | 476 (55.3%) | |
| Social isolation | |||
| Lives alone, n (%) | 81 (9.6%) | 78 (9.1%) | 0.685 |
| Lives with others, n (%) | 759 (90.4%) | 782 (90.9%) | |
| Occupational status, | |||
| Employed, n (%) | 406 (48.3%) | 405 (47.1%) | 0.609 |
| Unemployed, n (%) | 434 (51.7%) | 455 (52.9%) | |
| Health insurance, n (%) | 426 (50.7%) | 460 (53.5%) | 0.252 |
| Regular visits of CVD screening clinics, n (%) | 332 (39.5%) | 310 (36.0%) | 0.139 |
| Compliance with medical treatment, n (%) | 369 (43.9%) | 378 (44.0%) | 0.992 |
[i] *: significant P value, CVD; cardiovascular diseases.
Table 3
Physical and laboratory assessment of all patients in both groups.
| GROUP I (N = 840) (CVD GROUP) | GROUP II (N = 860) (CONTROL GROUP) | P VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Body mass index, (kg/m2) | 26.53 ± 4.44 | 25.88 ± 4.40 | 0.003* |
| Waist circumference, (cm) | 99.02 ± 8.73 | 98.14 ± 8.43 | 0.035* |
| Systolic BP, mmHg | 133.0 ± 12.5 | 131.9 ± 12.8 | 0.072 |
| Diastolic BP, mmHg | 78.04 ± 10.2 | 77.86 ± 10.5 | 0.717 |
| Heart rate, bpm | 76.31 ± 12.9 | 75.61 ± 12.6 | 0.262 |
| Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dl) | 112.3 ± 9.21 | 111.8 ± 10.2 | 0.298 |
| 2-h post prandial plasma glucose (mg/dl) | 146.2 ± 24.6 | 144.9 ± 23.4 | 0.271 |
| HbA1c % | 6.61 ± 1.51 | 6.48 ± 1.22 | 0.048* |
| Hemoglobin, g/dl | 12.3 ± 0.85 | 1.2.2 ± 0.88 | 0.076 |
| Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (mlU/L) | 4.22 ± 1.76 | 4.33 ± 1.91 | 0.200 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dl | 213.2 ± 37.3 | 211.9 ± 33.9 | 0.456 |
| Serum triglycerides,mg/dl | 154.3 ± 12.0 | 153.3 ± 12.6 | 0.087 |
| Low density lipoprotein,mg/dl | 135.0 ± 25.1 | 132.4 ± 25.5 | 0.033* |
| High density lipoprotein,mg/dl | 44.1 ± 7.11 | 44.8 ± 7.16 | 0.068 |
| Serum creatinine, mg/dl | 1.08 ± 0.26 | 1.06 ± 0.25 | 0.215 |
| e-GFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 90.3 ± 10.9 | 91.1 ± 11.8 | 0.113 |
| C-reactive protein,mg/L | 4.42 ± 1.61 | 4.30 ± 1.64 | 0.137 |
| Uric acid,mg/dl | 5.79 ± 0.97 | 5.82 ± 0.96 | 0.613 |
| Albuminuria (mg/g) | 21.9 ± 8.90 | 21.4 ± 24.4 | 0.588 |
[i] *: significant P value, BP: blood pressure, HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin, e-GFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate.
Table 4
Multivariate regression analysis showing the independent predictors affecting cardiovascular diseases.
| MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS | P. VALUE | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| OR | (95% CI) | ||
| Hypertension | 1.410 | 0.438–4.539 | 0.565 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 1.093 | 0.699–1.710 | 0.697 |
| Dyslipidemia | 1.225 | 0.525–2.857 | 0.639 |
| Smoking | 1.115 | 0.756–1.643 | 0.583 |
| Metabolic syndrome | 1.463 | 1.056–2.026 | 0.022* |
| Obesity | 1.592 | 0.781–3.245 | 0.201 |
| Psychosocial stress | 1.404 | 1.008–1.953 | 0.044* |
| Lack of physical activity | 1.038 | 0.746–1.444 | 0.825 |
| High-fat, processed, and fast food | 1.964 | 1.489–2.590 | 0.001* |
| Low income of population | 1.865 | 1.454–2.391 | 0.001* |
[i] *: significant P value.
Figure 1
Forest plot of the multivariate regression analysis showing odds ratios and 95% confidence interval (CI) of the independent predictors affecting cardiovascular diseases.