Figure 1
Study selection with flow diagram based on the PRISMA 2009 guidelines.
Table 1
Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in the Gambia.
| Fist author surname and year | Site | a. Sample size b. response rate (%) c. sampling methods | Age range | Definition | Prevalence (%) (95% Cl) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Both sexes combined | Male | Female | |||||
| Overweight and obesity | |||||||
| Cham 2018 [18] | (Semi-)urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | Overweight: BMI ≥ 25 Obesity: BMI ≥ 30 Central obesity** | 26.3 11.7 30.9 | 25.2 7.8 12.2 | 27.2 15.1 46.8 |
| Van der Sande 1997 [19] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 6048 b. 94.9 c. Random sample | 15–76+ | Overweight: BMI 25–30 Obesity: BMI ≥ 30 | 8.1 2.3 | NG NG | NG NG |
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 5389 b. Overall:78.1 Urban:67.7 Rural:87.1 c. Random sample | 15–55+ | Obesity: BMI ≥ 30 | 4.01 | Urban: 1.8 Rural: 0.1 | Urban: 12.2 Urban ≥35 years: 32.61 Rural: 1.1 |
| Siervo 2006 [21] | Urban | a. N = 200 b. >90 c. Random sample | 14–50 | Overweight: BMI 25–30 Obesity: BMI ≥ 30 Central obesity | NG NG NG | Age 14–24: 0 Age 35–50: 6 Age 14–25: 0 Age 35–50: 6 Age 35–50: 8 | Age 14–25: 10 Age 35–50: 34 Age 14–25: 6 Age 35–50: 50 Age 14–25: 12 Age 35–50: >80 |
| Hypertension | |||||||
| Cham 2018 [18] | (Semi-) urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg and/or diagnosed hypertension | 29 (26.6–31.8) | Overall: 27.7 (24.5–31.2) Age 25–34: 17.5 (13.9–21.8) Age 35–44: 26.3 (21.3–32.1) Age 45–54: 43.0 (35.8–50.4) Age 55–64: 53.4 (44.9–61.7) Urban: 23.9 (19.6–28.8) Semi-urban: 29.5 (22.1–38.2) Rural: 33.9 (29.6–38.6) | Overall: 30.5 (27.4–33.8) Age 25–34: 16.9 (44.9–61.7) Age 35–44: 33.6 (13.4–21.1) Age 45–54: 45.4 (29.3–38.1) Age 55–64: 60.4 (38.6–52.4) Urban: 26.1 (22.2–30.4) Semi-urban: 42.1 (29.7–55.5) Rural: 35.4 (31.7–39.3) |
| Undiagnosed hypertension*** | 79 (74.5–82.2) | Overall: 86.0 (81.7–89.4) Age 25–34: 95.3 (88.4–98.2) Age 35–44: 93.7 (86.9–97.1) Age 45–54: 85.7 (76.5–91.7) Age 55–64: 61.3 (51.0–70.8) Urban: 88.0 (81.8–92.3) Semi-urban: 81.9 (64.1–92.0) Rural: 84.5 (77.5–89.6) | 71.4 (65.2–76.9) Age 25–34: 88.2 (80.4–93.2) Age 35–44:73.0 (62.4–81.6) Age 45–54: 65.9 (55.7–74.9) Age 55–64: 54.7 (42.1–66.6) Urban: 69.1 (59.4–77.3) Semi-urban: 62.2 (54.2–69.6) Rural: 76.0 (66.0–83.8) | ||||
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and rural | a. N = 5389 b. Overall: 78.1Urban: 67.7Rural: 87.1 c. Random sample | 15–55+ | SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg | 18.4 | NG | NG |
| SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg or on hypertension medication | Overall: 19.0 Urban: 20.3 Rural: 17.8 | Urban: 22 Rural: 20.6 | Urban: 16.9 Rural: 16.0 | ||||
| SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 95 mmHg | 7.1 | NG | NG | ||||
| SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 95 mmHg or on hypertension medication | Overall: 7.6 Urban: 8.9 Rural: 6.9 | Urban: 7.5 Rural: 7.6 | Urban: 7.3 Rural: 6.3 | ||||
| Van der Sande 1997 [19] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 6048 b. 94.9 c. Random sample | 15–76+ | SBP ≥ 140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg | 24.2 | NG | NG |
| SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 95 mmHg | 9.5 | NG | NG | ||||
| Kobal 2004 [22] | Urban | a. N = 1997 b. NG c. Random sample | 0–75 | SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg | Overall: 2 Age 20+: 32.43 Age 20–29: 13.23 Age 30–39: 27.33 Age 40–49: 44.83 Age 50–59: 47.43 Age 60–69: 83.83 Age 70+: 77.33 | NG | NG |
| Jobe 2017 [23] | Rural | a. N = 2523 b. NG c. Random sample | ≥18 | SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg | Overall: 18.3(16.8–19.9) Age 18–29: 2.8(1.8–4.4) Age 30–39: 9.8(7.4–12.7) Age 40–49: 14.2(11.2–17.7) Age 50–59: 25.0(20.9–29.6) Age 60–69: 45.7(40.2–51.3) Age 70–79: 53.8(44.7–62.7) Age ≥ 80: 51.2 (36.5–65.6 | Overall: 16.7 (14.1–19.6) Age 18–29: 1.0 (0.02–3.8) Age 30–39: 3.4 (1.1–10.1) Age 40–49: 9.6 (5.2–17.0) Age 50–59: 18.3 (12.6–25.8) Age 60–69: 35.2 (27.3–44.0) Age 70–79: 55.3 (41.1–68.8) Age ≥ 80: 57.9 (35.6–77.4) | Overall:18.9(17.2–20.9) Age 18–29: 3.6(2.2–5.7) Age 30–39: 11.1(8.4–14.5) Age 40–49: 15.4(12.1–19.7) Age 50–59: 28.3(23.0–34.1) Age 60–69: 52.7(45.5–59.7) Age 70–79: 52.9(41.2–64.2) Age ≥ 80: 45.8(27.5–65.4) |
| Diabetes | |||||||
| Van der Sande 1997 [19] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 6048 b. 94.9 c. Random sample | 15–76+ | Fasting blood glucose ≥ 6.7 mmol/L after a positive glucosuria dipstick test | 0.3 | NG | NG |
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 2301 b. Overall: 78.1Urban:67.7Rural: 87.1 c. Random sample | ≥35 | 2-hour 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test >10.0 mmol/L or currently on antidiabetic medication | NG | Urban: 7.9 Rural: 2.2 | Urban: 8.7 Rural: 0.8 |
| Elevated blood lipids | |||||||
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 1075 b. Overall: 78.1Urban: 67.7Rural: 87.1 c. Random sample | ≥35 years | Cholesterol > 5.2 mmol/L | NG | Urban: 12.5 Rural: 2.3 | Urban: 29.1 Rural: 8.3 |
| Triglycerides > 1.8 mmol/L | NG | Urban: 4.0 Rural: 4.3 | Urban: 4.0 Rural: 4.3 | ||||
| Tobacco smoking | |||||||
| Cham 2018 [18] | (Semi-)urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | Current smokers | 15.6 | 32.8 | 1.1 |
| Ex -smokers | 5.2 | 10.8 | 0.6 | ||||
| Never smoked | 79.2 | 56.5 | 98.3 | ||||
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 5389 b. Overall: 78.1Urban: 67.7Rural: 87.1 c. Random sample | 15–55+ | Currently smoking | NG | Urban: 34.1 Rural: 42.2 | Urban: 1.5 Rural: 5.9 |
| Ever smoked | NG | Urban: 46.9 Rural: 57.7 | Urban: 3.0 Rural: 7.2 | ||||
| Siervo 2006 [21] | Urban | a. N = 200 b. >90 c. Random sample. | 14–50 | Currently smoking | NG | Age 14–25: 16 Age 35–50: 38 | Age 14–25: 0 Age 35–50: 0 |
| Jallow 2017 [24] | Urban and rural | a. N = 10289 b. 99 c. Random sample of secondary school students | 12–20 | Current smokers | Age 14–15: 3.6 Age 18–19: 5.5 Age 20: 5.7 | NG | NG |
| Ever smoked | Age 20: 19.8 | ||||||
| Alcohol consumption | |||||||
| Cham 2018 [18] | (Semi-) urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | Ever consumed | 2.3 | 3.7 | 1.1 |
| Insufficient fruit and vegetable consumption | |||||||
| Cham 2018 [18] | (Semi-) urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | <5 servings of fruit and vegetables per day | 77.8 | 77.9 | 77.6 |
| Inadequate physical activity | |||||||
| (Semi-) urban and rural | a. N = 3573 b. 77.9 c. Random sample* | 25–64 | <600 METS/week | 14.6 | 12.0 | 16.7 | |
| Van der Sande 2000 [20] | Urban and Rural | a. N = 5389 b. Overall: 78.1Urban: 67.7Rural: 87.1 c. Random sample | 15–55+ | <0.5 day on their feet or leading a sedentary life | NG | Urban: 49.2 Rural: 48.1 | Urban: 69.8 Rural: 58.0 |
| Siervo 2006 [21] | Urban | a. N = 200 b. >90 c. Random sample | 14–50 | No physical activity or sport | NG | Age 14–25: 2 Age 35–50: 54 | Age 14–25: 72 Age 35–50: 52 |
[i] CI: confidence interval, BMI: body mass index, SBP: systolic blood pressure, DBP: diastolic blood pressure, MET: metabolic equivalent of task NG: Not given.
¹ Data available from another paper by van der Sande et al. published in 2001 [26] (same data source).
2 Includes data from participants under the age of 15 years, therefore not included.
3 Data available from another paper by Awad et al. published in 2014 [27] (same data source).
*Based on secondary analysis of data from the WHO STEP survey 2010, conducted among 4111 randomly sampled participants. Restricted to non-pregnant participants with three valid blood pressure measurements.
**Abdominal obesity: WC ≥ 90 cm in men and WC ≥ 80 cm in women.
***Proportion of hypertensives not aware of their condition prior to the survey.