Figure 1
Illustration of the Flow of Events in Word and Visual Recall Tasks.
Note: Each task was completed three times, once in silence, once while listening to instrumental music (lo-fi) and once with music with lyrics. Background music was presented during the study phase only.
Figure 2
Illustration of the Flow of Events in the Reading Comprehension and the Arithmetic Tasks.
Note: Each task was completed three times, once in silence, once while listening to instrumental music (lo-fi) and once with music with lyrics. Background music was presented during completion of the task and the judment of learning rating.
Table 1
Evidence (Bayes Factor, BF) for the Main Effect of Background Music (One-Way ANOVA), and for the Pairwise Contrast of Conditions (t-tests). For the Condition Comparisons, the Effect-Size (Cohen’s d) and its 95% Confidence Interval is Also Provided.
| TASK | DEPENDENT VARIABLE | MUSIC BF10 | PAIRWISE CONDITION CONTRASTS | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| INSTRUMENTAL VS. SILENCE | LYRICAL VS. SILENCE | INSTRUMENTAL VS. LYRICAL | |||
| Verbal Recall | Proportion Correct | 11.44 | BF10 = 0.33 d = –.16 [–.34, .03] | BF10 = 20.43 d = –.32 [–.51, –.13] | BF10 = 0.84 d = .20 [.01, .38] |
| Judgment of Learning | 1.07 × 107 | BF10 = 0.11 d = –.01 [–.20, .17] | BF10 = 74.38 d = –.36 [–.55, –.17] | BF10 = 5.39 d = .27 [.08, .46] | |
| Post-Task Rating | BF10 = .11 d = –.02 [–.20, .17] | BF10 = 1.68 × 107 d = –.64 [–.84, –.44] | |||
| Visual Recall | Proportion Correct | 24.6 | BF10 = 1.85 d = –.23 [–.41, –.04] | BF10 = 40.79 d = –.33 [–.52, –.15] | BF10 = 0.32 d = .14 [–.04, .32] |
| Judgment of Learning | 77.25 | BF10 = 0.96 d = –.20 [–.38, –.02] | BF10 = 92.92 d = –.35 [–.53, –.16] | BF10 = 1.06 d = .20 [.02, .38] | |
| Post-Task Rating | BF10 = 14.24 d = .29 [.11, .47] | BF10 = 64.13 d = –.34 [–.52, –.15] | |||
| Reading | Proportion Correct | 8.73 | BF10 = 0.29 d = .14 [–.05, .32] | BF10 = 0.70 d = –.19 [–.37, .00] | BF10 = 18.25 d = .31 [.12, .50] |
| Time to Respond | 0.17 | BF10 = 0.12 d = –.52 [–.23, .14] | BF10 = 0.53 d = –.17 [–.36, .01] | BF10 = 0.24 d = .13 [–.06, .31] | |
| Judgment of Learning | 506.25 | BF10 = 0.49 d = –.17 [–.35, .02] | BF10 = 465 d = –.40 [–.60, –.21] | BF10 = 9.66 d = .29 [.10, .48] | |
| Post-Task Rating | BF10 = 3.08 × 105 d = .53 [.34, .72] | BF10 = 4.22 d = –.25 [–.43, –.07] | |||
| Arithmetic | Proportion Correct | 0.067 | BF10 = 0.12 d = –.05 [–.24, .14] | BF10 = 0.21 d = –.11 [–.31, .08] | BF10 = 0.14 d = .07 [–.12, .26] |
| Time to Respond | 0.041 | BF10 = 0.11 d = –.02 [–.21, .17] | BF10 = 0.12 d = .04 [–.15, .23] | BF10 = 0.12 d = .05 [–.14, .24] | |
| Judgment of Learning | 1.71 | BF10 = 0.99 d = –.21 [–.40, –.02] | BF10 = 2.32 d = –.25 [–.44, –.05] | BF10 = 0.20 d = .11 [–.08, .30] | |
| Post-Task Rating | BF10 = 0.15 d = .08 [–.11, .27] | BF10 = 3.45 × 106 d = –.63 [–.84, –.42] | |||
[i] Note. Positive values of d reflect better performance of the musical condition stated first; negative values reflect worse performance in this condition.
Figure 3
Results of the Verbal Recall Task. Panel A. Proportion of Correct Answers. Panel B. Judgments of Learning. Panel C. Post-Task Ratings.
Note: Instr. = instrumental music. Individual data is shown as a small overlaid cloud of dots (slightly jittered along the x-axis for better visibility). The sample mean is presented as a large dot. Error bars are the 95% within-subject confidence interval (Morey, 2008).
Figure 4
Results of the Visual Recall Task. Panel A. Proportion of Correct Answers. Panel B. Judgments of Learning. Panel C. Post-Task Rating.
Note: Instr. = instrumental music. Individual data is shown as a small overlaid cloud of dots (slightly jittered along the x-axis for better visibility). The sample mean is presented as a large dot. Error bars are the 95% within-subject confidence interval (Morey, 2008).
Figure 5
Results of the Reading Comprehension Task. Panel A. Proportion of Correct Answers. Panel B. Average Time to Respond Correctly. Panel C. Judgments of Learning. Panel D. Post-Task Ratings.
Note: Instr. = instrumental music. Individual data is shown as a small overlaid cloud of dots (slightly jittered along the x-axis for better visibility). The sample mean is presented as a large dot. Error bars are the 95% within-subject confidence intervals (Morey, 2008).
Figure 6
Results of the Arithmetic Task. Panel A. Proportion of Correct Answers. Panel B. Average Time to Respond Correctly. Panel C. Judgments of Learning. Panel D. Post-Task Ratings.
Note: Instr. = instrumental music. Individual data is shown as a small overlaid cloud of dots (slightly jittered along the x-axis for better visibility). The sample mean is presented as a large dot. Error bars are the 95% within-subject confidence interval (Morey, 2008).
Table 2
Music Knowledge of Each Song in the Different Tasks.
| TASK | SONGS | MUSIC KNOWLEDGE | FREQ. | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal recall | Both | 8 | 7.1 | |
| Neither | 34 | 30.1 | ||
| “Cotton Cloud” | Only Instrumental | 2 | 1.8 | |
| “Onde Vais” | Only Lyrical | 69 | 61.1 | |
| Total | 113 | 100 | ||
| Visual recall | Both | 8 | 6.5 | |
| Neither | 53 | 42.7 | ||
| “Gyoza” | Only Instrumental | 1 | 0.8 | |
| “Mais ou Menos Isto” | Only Lyrical | 62 | 50 | |
| Total | 124 | 100 | ||
| Reading Comprehension | Both | 3 | 2.4 | |
| Neither | 84 | 67.7 | ||
| “Alone Time” | Only Instrumental | 7 | 5.6 | |
| “Fato treino do City” | Only Lyrical | 30 | 24.2 | |
| Total | 124 | 100 | ||
| Arithmetic | Both | 5 | 4.4 | |
| Neither | 68 | 60.2 | ||
| “Snowman” | Only Instrumental | 10 | 8.8 | |
| “Como Se Te Fosse Perder” | Only Lyrical | 30 | 26.5 | |
| Total | 113 | 100 |