Is Cognitive Flexibility Equivalent to Shifting? Investigating Cognitive Flexibility in Multiple Domains

TASK SCORE	COUNTRY = ROMANIA (N = 128)					COUNTRY = USA (N = 93)					OVERALL SAMPLE (N = 221)
TASK SCORE	N	M	SD	MIN	MAX	N	M	SD	MIN	MAX	N	M	SD	MIN	MAX
Sex
Male	10					37					47
Female	115					50					165
Other	1					1					2
Age (years)	125	19.82	3.34	18.00	40.00	88	19.09	1.06	17.00	24.00	213	19.52	2.67	17.00	40.00
SH-switching cost	126	0.08	0.10	–0.13	0.66	88	0.09	0.07	–0.05	0.44	214	0.09	0.09	–0.13	0.66
SH-mixing cost congruent	125	0.22	0.11	–0.11	0.65	89	0.18	0.13	–0.32	0.78	214	0.20	0.12	–0.32	0.78
SH-mixing cost incongruent	124	0.15	0.10	–0.15	0.63	89	0.11	0.10	–0.38	0.34	213	0.13	0.10	–0.38	0.63
RAT-accuracy	127	6.80	3.11	1.00	15.00	87	8.52	3.25	1.00	15.00	214	7.50	3.27	1.00	15.00
RAT-RT	127	15.10	8.17	3.15	45.59	87	11.70	9.14	4.29	74.32	214	13.72	8.72	3.15	74.32
AF-sum of switches	128	5.06	1.00	2.00	6.00	92	4.62	1.24	1.00	6.00	220	4.88	1.13	1.00	6.00
AF-switch rate	128	18.63	28.15	0.00	182.50	92	16.58	20.27	0.00	135.00	220	17.77	25.13	0.00	182.50
AF-switch rate RT	128	1.35	1.73	0.10	10.05	92	1.57	2.92	0.12	21.38	220	1.44	2.30	0.10	21.38
MATH-overall accuracy	128	13.36	1.78	9.00	16.00	84	12.68	2.90	2.00	16.00	212	13.09	2.31	2.00	16.00
MATH-flexibility accuracy	128	7.01	0.98	4.00	8.00	84	6.55	1.42	2.00	8.00	212	6.83	1.19	2.00	8.00
MATH-control accuracy	128	6.35	1.23	3.00	8.00	84	6.13	1.78	0.00	8.00	212	6.26	1.47	0.00	8.00
MATH-accuracy difference	128	0.66	1.32	–3.00	4.00	85	0.42	1.39	–3.00	4.00	212	0.56	1.35	–3.00	4.00
MATH-overall RT	128	16.52	5.48	6.60	34.14	84	14.41	5.12	4.36	29.80	212	15.68	5.43	4.36	34.14
MATH-flexibility RT	128	15.31	5.56	6.13	32.35	84	13.83	5.50	3.85	28.03	212	14.73	5.57	3.85	32.35
MATH-control RT	128	18.34	5.95	7.45	36.94	83	15.59	5.33	5.83	29.80	211	17.26	5.86	5.83	36.95
MATH-RT difference	128	3.05	3.26	–6.91	12.74	84	1.97	3.34	–5.10	11.49	212	2.62	3.33	–6.91	12.74
AMAS avg. score	128	2.89	0.70	1.56	4.89	92	2.99	0.92	1.00	4.89	220	2.93	0.80	1.00	4.89

[i] Note. AF = Ambiguous Figures Task; RAT = Remote Associates Test; SH = Set-Shifting Task; MATH = Math Task; RT = response time; AMAS = Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale.

Table 2

Partial Correlations Between the Scores on the Four Experimental Tasks, controlled for Participant Country.

VARIABLE	SH-SWITCHING COST	SH-MIXING COST CONGRUENT	SH-MIXING COST INCONGRUENT	RAT-ACCURACY	RAT-RT	AF-SUM OF SWITCHES	AF-SWITCH RATE	AF-SWITCH RATE RT	MATH-OVERALL ACCURACY	MATH-FLEXIBILITY ACCURACY	MATH-CONTROL ACCURACY	MATH-ACCURACY DIFFERENCE	MATH-OVERALL RT	MATH-FLEXIBILITY RT	MATH-CONTROL RT	MATH-RT DIFFERENCE
SH-switching cost	1.000
SH-mixing cost congruent	0.274***	1.000
SH-mixing cost incongruent	0.255***	0.446***	1.000
RAT-accuracy	–0.107	–0.050	–0.136	1.000
RAT-RT	0.122	0.104	0.100	0.061	1.000
AF-sum of switches	–0.011	–0.089	–0.017	0.102	–0.089	1.000
AF-switch rate	–0.088	0.003	0.020	–0.026	0.040	0.042	1.000
AF-switch rate RT	–0.095	0.008	0.026	0.216*	0.026	0.007	–0.207*	1.000
MATH-overall accuracy	–0.117	–0.041	0.068	0.219*	0.123	0.124	–0.047	0.143	1.000
MATH-flexibility accuracy	–0.132	–0.129	0.050	0.155	0.130	0.132	–0.020	0.189*	0.830***	1.000
MATH-control accuracy	–0.076	0.040	0.066	0.214*	0.085	0.088	–0.058	0.073	0.896***	0.495***	1.000
MATH-accuracy difference	–0.034	–0.154	–0.026	–0.093	0.019	0.019	0.046	0.084	–0.254***	0.329***	–0.658***	1.000
MATH-overall RT	0.044	0.108	0.040	0.043	0.273***	–0.045	–0.048	–0.091	–0.158	–0.044	–0.212*	0.192*	1.000
MATH-flexibility RT	0.020	0.093	0.037	0.009	0.236**	–0.051	–0.019	–0.075	–0.184*	–0.078	–0.224**	0.175*	0.915***	1.000
MATH-control RT	0.024	0.091	0.054	0.058	0.229**	–0.047	–0.078	–0.097	–0.156	–0.028	–0.217*	0.202*	0.920***	0.771***	1.000
MATH-RT difference	–0.028	–0.089	0.007	0.076	0.098	0.018	–0.168	0.009	0.035	0.016	0.043	–0.033	0.087	–0.134	0.300***	1.000

[i] Note. All correlations control for Participant Country; AF = Ambiguous Figures Task; RAT = Remote Associates Test; SH = Set-Shifting Task; MATH = Math Task; Corrected p values: * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001; N = 221; for individual number of statistical units, please see df for each correlation in Table 6 Supplementary File 1.

Table 3

Total Variance Explained by the 4 Factors Extracted Using the Exploratory Factor Analysis.

FACTOR	INITIAL EIGENVALUES			EXTRACTION SUMS OF SQUARED LOADINGS			ROTATION SUMS OF SQUARED LOADINGS
FACTOR	TOTAL	% OF VARIANCE	CUMULATIVE %	TOTAL	% OF VARIANCE	CUMULATIVE %	TOTAL
1	2.263	18.858	18.858	1.164	9.699	9.699	1.115
2	1.648	13.733	32.591	1.757	14.646	24.344	1.730
3	1.596	13.300	45.890	1.181	9.842	34.186	1.296
4	1.244	10.369	56.259	1.029	8.574	42.760	1.137

[i] Note. Extraction method: Maximum Likelihood; Rotation: oblimin with Kaiser normalization; N = 200.

Table 4

Pattern and Structure Matrix for the Exploratory Factor Analysis.

TASK SCORE	PATTERN MATRIX				STRUCTURE MATRIX
	FACTOR				FACTOR
	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4
SH-switching cost			0.362				0.375
SH-mixing cost congruent			0.749				0.748
SH-mixing cost incongruent			0.686				0.664
RAT-accuracy
RAT-RT		0.305				0.327
AF-sum of switches
AF-switch rate
AF-switch rate RT	0.993				0.991
MATH-flexibility accuracy				0.755				0.772
MATH-control accuracy				0.613				0.607
MATH-flexibility RT		0.857				0.850
MATH-control RT		0.899				0.893

[i] Note. AF = Ambiguous Figures Task; RAT = Remote Associates Test; SH = Set-Shifting Task; MATH = Math Task; RT = response time; Results obtained using the Maximum Likelihood extraction method with oblimin rotation; N = 200.

Screeplot for the entire sample (N = 200).

ENGLISH STIMULI
WORD 1	WORD 2	WORD 3	CORRECT ANSWER	TASK PHASE
rocking	wheel	high	chair	training
aid	rubber	wagon	band	test
flake	mobile	cone	snow	test
cracker	fly	fighter	fire	test
safety	cushion	point	pin	test
fish	mine	rush	gold	test
political	surprise	line	party	test
measure	worm	video	tape	test
sense	courtesy	place	common	test
worm	shelf	end	book	test
flower	friend	scout	girl	test
hound	pressure	shot	blood	test
fly	clip	wall	paper	test
tank	hill	secret	top	test
health	taker	less	care	test
dress	dial	flower	sun	test
Romanian stimuli (please refer to Olteţeanu et al., 2019 for the translation of the items in English)
WORD 1	WORD 2	WORD 3	CORRECT ANSWER	TASK PHASE
ski	bicicliști	aterizare	pistă	training
replică	ploaie	băutură	acidă	test
vizual	tragere	semantic	câmp	test
ultima	actuală	fixă	oră	test
legitimă	avocat	cheltuieli	apărare	test
ou	pisică	picături	ochi	test
electronică	prioritară	română	poștă	test
iarbă	păr	telefon	fir	test
control	şah	fildeş	turn	test
rotile	electric	birou	scaun	test
electric	cont	literar	curent	test
perete	miez	cocos	nucă	test
muzicală	direcţie	bijuterii	cutie	test
spălat	tuns	cusut	mașină	test
scris	măsurat	muzical	instrument	test
ac	centură	naţională	siguranţă	test

EQUATIONS	CORRECT ANSWER	TYPE OF ITEM	TASK PHASE
9 + 8 + 7 + 11 + 12 + 13	60	flexible	training
9 + 7 + 6 + 10 + 11 + 13	56	control	training
8 + 2 + 3 + 8 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 2 + 3	40	flexible	test
2 × 3 + 2 × 3 + 2 × 3 + 2 × 3	24	flexible	test
13 × 3 – 2 × 13	13	flexible	test
17 + 22 – 8 – 9	22	flexible	test
7 × 6 × 3 × 0 + 4 × 5 × 4	80	flexible	test
4 × 21 – 3 × 7 × 2	42	flexible	test
6 + 7 + 65	78	flexible	test
4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 6 + 5	33	flexible	test
7 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 2 + 6 + 7 + 3 + 5	40	control	test
1 × 2 + 2 × 2 + 3 × 1 + 4 × 2	17	control	test
13 × 3 – 12 × 2	15	control	test
15 + 18 – 4 – 8	21	control	test
4 × 7 × 2 + 1 × 5 × 3	71	control	test
4 × 19 – 3 × 7 × 2	34	control	test
25 + 17 + 32	74	control	test
9 + 3 + 2 + 8 + 7 + 4	33	control	test

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.403 | Journal eISSN: 2514-4820

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Language: English

Submitted on: Dec 4, 2023

Accepted on: Sep 26, 2024

Published on: Oct 10, 2024

Published by: Ubiquity Press

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

Keywords:

cognitive flexibility,

set-shifting,

domain-specificity

© 2024 Thea Ionescu, Robert L. Goldstone, Doris Rogobete, Mihaela Taranu, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 7 (2024): Issue 1

Is Cognitive Flexibility Equivalent to Shifting? Investigating Cognitive Flexibility in Multiple Domains

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Table 4

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