Table 1
Three-Day Timeline of the Design Used in Experiment 1.
| GROUP | CONDITION | DAY 1 | DAY 2 | DAY 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pretest | IF-IT | Pretest (8s) + F (5s) – Final test | — | — |
| IF-DT | Pretest (8s) + F (5s) | Final test | — | |
| DF-IT | Pretest (8s) | F (5s) – Final test | — | |
| DF-DT | Pretest (8s) | F (5s) | Final test | |
| Read | IF-IT | Read (13s) – Final test | — | — |
| IF-DT | Read (13s) | Final test | — | |
| DF-IT | Read (8s) | Read (5s) – Final test | — | |
| DF-DT | Read (8s) | Read (5s) | Final test |
[i] Note. “IF-IT” indicates immediate feedback followed by an immediate test, “IF-DT” indicates immediate feedback followed by a delayed test, “DF–IT” indicates delayed feedback followed by an immediate test, and “DF–DT” indicates delayed feedback followed by a delayed test.
Figure 1
Schematic Representation of the Procedure Used in Experiment 1.
Note. Participants began with either a cued-recall pretest or a reading session of the word pairs, followed by corrective feedback (or extended exposure to the pairs) delivered either immediately or after a one-day delay. They then completed a final cued-recall test either immediately after receiving feedback (or extended reading), or following a one-day delay.
Figure 2
Mean Percentage of Correct Responses on each Cued-Recall Test of Experiment 1.
Note. “IF-IT” refers to immediate feedback followed by an immediate test. “IF-DT” indicates immediate feedback followed by a delayed test, “DF–IT” refers to delayed feedback followed by an immediate test, and “DF–DT” indicates delayed feedback followed by a delayed test. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Table 2
Proportions of Error Types (Commission, Omission, Confusion, and Intrusion) Across Test Conditions in Experiment 1.
| ERROR CATEGORY | IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK | DELAYED FEEDBACK | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IMMEDIATE TEST | DELAYED TEST | IMMEDIATE TEST | DELAYED TEST | |||||
| PRETEST | READ | PRETEST | READ | PRETEST | READ | PRETEST | READ | |
| Commission | .63 (.32) | .62 (.26) | .53 (.21) | .70 (.21) | .56 (.30) | .70 (.27) | .53 (.18) | .78 (.18) |
| Omission | .00 (.02) | .19 (.25) | .02 (.06) | .14 (.21) | .01 (.04) | .16 (.26) | .03 (.10) | .12 (.19) |
| Confusion | .12 (.17) | .19 (.16) | .17 (.14) | .16 (.14) | .20 (.24) | .14 (.13) | .13 (.11) | .10 (.11) |
| Intrusion | .24 (.25) | — | .28 (.19) | — | .23 (.18) | — | .31 (.18) | — |
[i] Note. Intrusion errors—incorrect test responses that repeated learners’ errors generated during the initial study phase—were not applicable to the read group. Standard Deviations are in parentheses.
Table 3
Three-Day Timeline of the Design Used in Experiment 2
| GROUP | CONDITION | DAY 1 | DAY 2 | DAY3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pretest | IF | Pretest (8s) + F (5s) – Final test | — | — |
| DF | Pretest (8s) | — | F (5s) – Final test | |
| Read | IF | Read (13s) – Final test | — | — |
| DF | Read (8s) | — | Read (5s) – Final test |
[i] Note. “IF” indicates immediate feedback, and “DF” indicates delayed feedback.
Figure 3
Overview of the Procedure Used in Experiment 2.
Note. Participants began with either a cued-recall pretest or a reading session of the word pairs, followed by corrective feedback (or extended exposure to the pairs) delivered either immediately or after a two-day delay. They then completed a final cued-recall immediately after receiving feedback (or extended reading).
Figure 4
Mean Percentage Correct Responses on each Cued-Recall Test in Experiment 2.
Note. “IF” refers to immediate feedback, and “DF” refers to delayed feedback. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Table 4
Proportions of Error Types (Commission, Omission, Confusion, and Intrusion) Across Test Conditions in Experiment 2.
| ERROR CATEGORY | IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK | DELAYED FEEDBACK | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PRETEST | READ | PRETEST | READ | |
| Commission | .39 (.36) | .81 (.19) | .47 (.26) | .85 (.14) |
| Omission | .01 (.04) | .03 (.09) | .04 (.14) | .00 (.00) |
| Confusion | .27 (.35) | .16 (.18) | .12 (.11) | .15 (.14) |
| Intrusion | .33 (.36) | – | .37 (.30) | – |
[i] Note. Intrusion errors—incorrect test responses that repeated learners’ errors generated during the initial study phase—were not applicable to the read condition. Standard Deviations are in parentheses.