
Is Mental Effort Exertion Contagious? A Replication Study
References
- Bailey, R. L., Wang, T. G., Liu, J., Clayton, R. B., Kwon, K., Diwanji, V., & Karimkhanashtiyani, F. (2022). Social Facilitation in Fear Appeals Creates Positive Affect but Inhibits Healthy Eating Intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.838471
- Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
- Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390–412. 10.1016/j.jml.2007.12.005
- Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1–48. 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
- Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108(3), 624–652. 10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.624
- Brooks, J. L. (2012). Counterbalancing for serial order carry-over effects in experimental condition orders. Psychological Methods, 17(4), 600–614. 10.1037/a0029310
- Brown, V. A. (2021). An Introduction to Linear Mixed-Effects Modeling in R. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 4(1), 2515245920960351. 10.1177/2515245920960351
- Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power Analysis and Effect Size in Mixed Effects Models: A Tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1), 9. 10.5334/joc.10
- Bugg, J. M., & Crump, M. J. (2012). In Support of a Distinction between Voluntary and Stimulus-Driven Control: A Review of the Literature on Proportion Congruent Effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 3.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00367 - Campbell, J. I. D., & Thompson, V. A. (2012). MorePower 6.0 for ANOVA with relational confidence intervals and Bayesian analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 44(4), 1255–1265. 10.3758/s13428-012-0186-0
- Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception–behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(6), 893–910. 10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.893
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. 10.4324/9780203771587
- Conty, L., Gimmig, D., Belletier, C., George, N., & Huguet, P. (2010). The cost of being watched: Stroop interference increases under concomitant eye contact. Cognition, 115(1), 133–139. 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.12.005
- Cracco, E., Bardi, L., Desmet, C., Genschow, O., Rigoni, D., De Coster, L., Radkova, I., Deschrijver, E., & Brass, M. (2018). Automatic imitation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(5), 453–500. 10.1037/bul0000143
- de Melo, M. B., Daldegan-Bueno, D., Menezes Oliveira, M. G., & de Souza, A. L. (2022). Beyond ANOVA and MANOVA for repeated measures: Advantages of generalized estimated equations and generalized linear mixed models and its use in neuroscience research. European Journal of Neuroscience, 56(12), 6089–6098. 10.1111/ejn.15858
- da Silva Soares, R., Ambriola Oku, A. Y., Barreto, C. S. F., & Ricardo Sato, J. (2022). Applying functional near-infrared spectroscopy and eye-tracking in a naturalistic educational environment to investigate physiological aspects that underlie the cognitive effort of children during mental rotation tests. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16. 10.3389/fnhum.2022.889806
- Desender, K., Beurms, S., & Van den Bussche, E. (2016). Is mental effort exertion contagious? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(2), 624–631. 10.3758/s13423-015-0923-3
- Dolk, T., Hommel, B., Colzato, L. S., Schütz-Bosbach, S., Prinz, W., & Liepelt, R. (2014). The joint Simon effect: A review and theoretical integration. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00974
- Dolk, T., Hommel, B., Prinz, W., & Liepelt, R. (2013). The (not so) social Simon effect: A referential coding account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39(5), 1248–1260. 10.1037/a0031031
- Elkins-Brown, N., Saunders, B., & Inzlicht, M. (2016). Error-related electromyographic activity over the corrugator supercilii is associated with neural performance monitoring. Psychophysiology, 53(2), 159–170. 10.1111/psyp.12556
- Friedman, R., & Elliot, A. J. (2008). The effect of arm crossing on persistence and performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(3), 449–461. 10.1002/ejsp.444
- Guerin, B. (1986). Mere presence effects in humans: A review. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22(1), 38–77. 10.1016/0022-1031(86)90040-5
- Hommel, B. (1996). S-R Compatibility Effects Without Response Uncertainty. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 49(3), 546–571. 10.1080/713755643
- Hommel, B. (2010). Grounding Attention in Action Control: The Intentional Control of Selection. 10.7551/mitpress/8602.003.0006
- Hommel, B. (2019). Theory of Event Coding (TEC) V2.0: Representing and controlling perception and action. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(7). 2139–2154. 10.3758/s13414-019-01779-4
- Jeannerod, M. (1999). The 25th Bartlett Lecture: To Act or Not to Act: Perspectives on the Representation of Actions. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 52(1), 1–29. 10.1080/713755803
- Jun, Y., Meng, R., & Johar, G. V. (2017). Perceived social presence reduces fact-checking. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(23), 5976–5981. 10.1073/pnas.1700175114
- Kiernan, D., Ray, M., & Welsh, T. N. (2012). Inverting the joint Simon effect by intention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(5), 914–920. 10.3758/s13423-012-0283-1
- Kong, Y., Posada-Quintero, H. F., Daley, M. S., Chon, K. H., & Bolkhovsky, J. (2020). Facial features and head movements obtained with a webcam correlate with performance deterioration during prolonged wakefulness. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 83(1), 525–540. 10.3758/s13414-020-02199-5
- Lakens, D. (2022). Sample Size Justification. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1), 33267. 10.1525/collabra.33267
- Leuthold, H. (2011). The Simon effect in cognitive electrophysiology: A short review. Acta Psychologica, 136(2), 203–211. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.08.001
- Matuschek, H., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., Baayen, H., & Bates, D. (2017). Balancing Type I error and power in linear mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 305–315. 10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001
- McDonough, K., Kim, Y. L., Uludag, P., Liu, C., & Trofimovich, P. (2022). Exploring the relationship between behavior matching and interlocutor perceptions in L2 interaction. System, 109, 102865. 10.1016/j.system.2022.102865
- Miller, M. R., Jun, H., Herrera, F., Villa, J. Y., Welch, G., & Bailenson, J. N. (2019). Social interaction in augmented reality. PLOS ONE, 14(5),
e0216290 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0216290 - Peirce, J., Gray, J. R., Simpson, S., MacAskill, M., Höchenberger, R., Sogo, H., Kastman, E., & Lindeløv, J. K. (2019). PsychoPy2: Experiments in behavior made easy. Behavior Research Methods, 51(1), 195–203. 10.3758/s13428-018-01193-y
- R Core Team. (2022). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
https://www.R-project.org/ - Rasmussen, E. E., Keene, J. R., Berke, C. K., Densley, R. L., & Loof, T. (2017). Explaining parental coviewing: The role of social facilitation and arousal. Communication Monographs, 84(3), 365–384. 10.1080/03637751.2016.1259532
- Rubichi, S., Nicoletti, R., Umiltà, C., & Zorzi, M. (2000). Response strategies and the Simon effect. Psychological Research, 63(2), 129–136. 10.1007/PL00008171
- Schielen, Z., Verhaegh, J., Dijkerman, C., & Naber, M. (2022). Reaction time coupling in a joint stimulus-response task: A matter of functional actions or likable agents? PLOS ONE, 17(7),
e0271164 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0271164 - Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime reference guide. Psychology Software Tools, Incorporated.
- Sebanz, N., Knoblich, G., & Prinz, W. (2003). Representing others’ actions: Just like one’s own? Cognition, 88(3), B11–21. 10.1016/s0010-0277(03)00043-x
- Shenhav, A., Musslick, S., Lieder, F., Kool, W., Griffiths, T. L., Cohen, J. D., & Botvinick, M. M. (2017). Toward a Rational and Mechanistic Account of Mental Effort. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 40(1), 99–124. 10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031526
- Silva-Júnior, F. L. E., Emanuel, P., Sousa, J., Silva, M., Teixeira, S., Oliveira Pires, F., Machado, S., & Arias-Carrion, O. (2016). Prior Acute Mental Exertion in Exercise and Sport. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 12(1), 94–107. 10.2174/1745017901612010094
- Simon, J. R. (1969). Reactions toward the source of stimulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 174–176. 10.1037/h0027448
- Sommet, N., & Morselli, D. (2017). Keep Calm and Learn Multilevel Logistic Modeling: A Simplified Three-Step Procedure Using Stata, R, Mplus, and SPSS. International Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 203–218. 10.5334/irsp.90
- Stürmer, B., Leuthold, H., Soetens, E., Schröter, H., & Sommer, W. (2002). Control over location-based response activation in the Simon task: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28(6), 1345–1363. 10.1037/0096-1523.28.6.1345
- Travis, L. E. (1925). The effect of a small audience upon eye-hand coordination. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 20(2), 142–146. 10.1037/h0071311
- Tsai, C.-C., Kuo, W.-J., Jing, J.-T., Hung, D. L., & Tzeng, O. J.-L. (2006). A common coding framework in self–other interaction: Evidence from joint action task. Experimental Brain Research, 175(2), 353–362. 10.1007/s00221-006-0557-9
- van der Wel, P., & van Steenbergen, H. (2018). Pupil dilation as an index of effort in cognitive control tasks: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(6), 2005–2015. 10.3758/s13423-018-1432-y
- Weingarten, E., Chen, Q., McAdams, M., Yi, J., Hepler, J., & Albarracín, D. (2016). From primed concepts to action: A meta-analysis of the behavioral effects of incidentally presented words. Psychological Bulletin, 142(5), 472–497. 10.1037/bul0000030
- Welsh, T. N., Kiernan, D., Neyedli, H. F., Ray, M., Pratt, J., Potruff, A., & Weeks, D. J. (2013). Joint Simon Effects in Extrapersonal Space. Journal of Motor Behavior, 45(1), 1–5. 10.1080/00222895.2012.746635
- Wiggins, B. J., & Christopherson, C. D. (2019). The replication crisis in psychology: An overview for theoretical and philosophical psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 39(4), 202–217. 10.1037/teo0000137
- Yamaguchi, M., Wall, H. J., & Hommel, B. (2018). Sharing tasks or sharing actions? Evidence from the joint Simon task. Psychological Research, 82(2), 219–231. 10.1007/s00426-016-0821-y
- Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social Facilitation. Science, 149(3681), 269–274. 10.1126/science.149.3681.269
- Zeileis, A., & Hothorn, T. (2002). Diagnostic Checking in Regression Relationships. R News, 2(3), 7–10.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.456 | Journal eISSN: 2514-4820
Language: English
Submitted on: Dec 7, 2024
Accepted on: Jul 20, 2025
Published on: Jul 29, 2025
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
© 2025 Alessandro Mazza, Ellen Voorrips, Gethin Hughes, Kobe Desender, Eva Van den Bussche, Hans Stuyck, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.